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Rapidly changing global work and education environments have presented many challenges for family members, friends, and romantic partners separated by the distance; thus, studies have shown that constant communication and interaction holds a prime importance in the maintenance of these relationships (Canary & Dainton, 2003 p.53).  The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of mobile communication technology (MCT) on long-distance personal relationships. MCT is a current phenomenon that has rapidly grown from a nearly invisible base two decades ago to become an inevitable aspect of everyday human interaction. However, there is conflicting research evidence on the value of this mode of communication in maintaining interpersonal relationships.  While some studies claim electronic communication strengthens family ties and romantic connections, other findings argue that it substitutes face-to-face social interactions and connections (Joseph, 1976). When focusing specifically on this new media in a transnational context, there is substantial research that suggests mobile communication technologies play a crucial role in family and romantic relationships.  Hence, this study will attempt to accomplish an understanding of whether or not mobile communication technologies (MCT) maintains relationships between individuals separated by the distance and if it enhances personal connectedness by allowing families and social partners to move across transnational spaces. By examining various perspectives on MCT, transnationalism, and interpersonal relationships, I will focus on various questions.

Mediated communication does play a very integral role in the society. From mere phone calls to text messaging, email to the internet, mobile phones help in the facilitation of an important day to day communication. Significant researches have been dedicated to the study of mobile technology.

Mobile technology helps in maintaining both long distance and local relationships.  Communication is vital in maintenance of long distant relationships and the mobile technology has aided these kind of efforts through giving people multiple choices of staying in touch.   The use of mobile phones allows communication to transcend to great and vast distances. In researching on the communication patterns among the students, it has been observed that maintenance of relationships before starting college is crucial (Ziff, 1976).

The mobile phone as a main form of mediated communication is a very rich medium as compared to an email or an IM as a result of addition of auditory cues and synchronicity.  Mobile phone conversations require the users to be available in order for communication to take place (Licoppe. 2004, pp 135-156). Mobile phone communication is usually seen as a more formal type of communication as compared to other forms of mediated communication for example text messaging and email (Maren, Patrick, Joachim, 2008, pp. 163).  It is the best mode of communication for the family as well as distant friends since it is more interactive and rich in its nature.

Short message service is also seen as asynchronous type of communication since the users are not required to be present when the message is received or sent. Mobile phones are usually a convenient means of communication since they are usually readily available regardless of one’s location and the SMS makes it easy to transmit the messages easily.

Long distances romantic relationships are not usually a novelty as far as academic studies are concerned.  Relationships are inevitably separated by job relocations, military obligations, and prison marriages among others.  The long distance relationships are usually maintained through relying heavily on the availability as well as use of the communication technologies (Daniel & Marianne, 2003, pp. 51).  Instant messaging and mobile phones are the most prevalent modes of communication that are used in daily basis among people in long distance relationships as compared to other means of communication.

It is lucid that maintaining of long distance relationships can be quite tough though mobile phones and other modern technologies have made life easier.  Most couples are left debating on whether to be apart or together in order to maintain a healthy relationship (Sahlstein, 2004, pp. 689-710). However, though Sahlstein in her article emphasizes on use of mobile phones in order to maintain a healthy relationship among couples and family, logically, communication over the phone is not the only imperative aspect in a relationship. At times people need to see their partners and ascertain their reaction face to face. By asserting that mobile phones help in preventing breakups is completely illogical. During the olden days, couples in long distance relationships usually used to limit the time they spent talking to each other because of the costly phone bills. Today because of the amplified cell phone plans of free mobile to mobile as well as internet services, it is quite easy to stay in touch with one another.  However, though research suggests that use of mobile phones is cheap; it is rational to note that cheap is relative. What might be cheap to one person might be expensive to another and therefore it is important to note that there are people who still cannot afford mobile phones and even operating it.

The migrants do not cut ties with their countries of origin but they maintain a close contact with them through transnationalism and use of mobile phone communication. Transnational experiences trigger people to focus on the rapidly evolving changes in technology. There are various factors that lead people to use particular technology as opposed to others. These are class, cultural values, settlement history, generation as well as access (Anastacia & Heather, 2006, pp. 109-124; Raelene, 2006. pp. 125-142).  However, Anastacia and Heather’s article is limited and quite narrow on the grounds that those are not determinants to choosing a particular mode of communication as opposed to the other.

Studies on transnationalism and the media have oscillated between various assumptions. There are theories that do assume the immense role of the media in shaping the identities and other theories argue for the resilience of the local cultures, ethnic, national as well as the emergence of phenomena for example the long distance nationalism.  Mobile phones have played a major role in the lives of transnational families.

Mobile communication is one of the fastest businesses globally. For example in Italy there are more mobile phones than even the inhabitants (Philip, Ludovico & Marco, pp. xvi).  Mobile communication is a vital part of our each day life. Their prices have fallen as their functionality increase. For example in USA, 40% of the students in the middle and primary schools have mobiles thus communicating with their families and partners who are outside the country is not a problem to them.. 90% of the university students and 75% of the high school students have mobile phones (Philip, Ludovico & Marco).  This has helped in making communication and life easier as far as maintaining children and parents relationships is concerned.

In Asia there have been tremendous increases in the number of mobile phones as well as Taiwan and Hong Kong where there are more phones than the inhabitants (Philip, Ludovico & Marco). The Jamaicans no longer rely on expensive calling cards or collect calls in order to communicate with their relatives and friends living abroad (Heather, 2006, pp. 143-159). To them mobile phones are unadulterated blessings that transform the main role of transnational communications from intermittent event to part of their daily life. To most critics, the mobile phone is usually seen as a major object of ambivalence that brings unforeseen obligations and burdens (Heather, 2006, pp. 143-159).  This is because as much as it is useful, it also leads to disagreements between partners mostly through short messages.

Families and parents perceive their phones as a major way of consistently staying connected across divergent situations. The global acceptance and increase in the use of mobiles has created vast opportunities in the communication sector. It has led to enhancement of information flow among people living worlds apart and even in cases of emergencies (Sakkapoulos, Lytras &Tsakalidis, 2006, pp. 208-215; Atluri, Heechang & Vaidya, 2008, pp. 439-475).

Despite mobile technologies being effective in keeping relationships in control and active, there has been great assumption that mobile phones are cheap means of communication and easy to use. However, not everybody can afford using them thus more research needs to be focused on the use of mobile phones.

There has been little focus on the health effects of mobile phones and how to curb this catastrophe. In the recent years, there has been an immense increase as far as use of mobile phones is concerned as well as microwave radiations which ought to raise concerns on the possible health impacts.  In a research done at Taipei the overall number of all mobile phone subscribers were 2.3 billion in the year 2006 which was expected to be 3.3 billion in 2011 (Fredrik, Lennart, Michael & Kjell, 2007). Most of the European countries do have a mobile phone penetration of over 100% meaning that there are obviously more subscribers as compared to the inhabitants (Fredrik, Lennart, Michael & Kjell, 2007).

In Japan about 40% of the entire populations have access to internet through mobile phones (Nansi, 2004, PP. 51). Mobile internet is a time enhancing practice as compared to the PC which is a time displacing practice (Kenichi, 2002, pp. 43-58).

The evolving forms of the mobiles permit the consideration of whether certain practices for example text messaging ought to be thought as the new form or means of communication in contrast with face to face interactions.  The mobile’s strategic means of thinking about the new association forms is in technological terms a device which would render the location completely insignificant allowing access of worldwide networks (Steve, 2002, pp. 288).

When compared with other mode of communication, the mobile has an equivocal status which is quite complex to conceptualize. It belongs to the new media category though much of its literature is not pertinent. Speaking via phone has been seen to be so natural that the mediating technology has been forgotten and terms like cyberspace no longer seems to fit.

On a closer look at the empirical phenomena of the mobile device in the use of our every day life, we tend to find that the philosophy and sociology  does consist of terms that are apt though have divergent referents for example problematization of private and public distinction, social mobility, structural transformation, phonocentrism, metaphysics of one’s presence and immutable mobile.

Most people argue that use of phones in public spaces makes the relation of public and private quite concrete as it brings private life into the social sphere. Moreover most critics assert that mobile phones do disturb the normal preference for silence in the public settings.  The use of the mobile phones in the public space does have numerous implications for the normal suctioned behaviors. Its use usually becomes experience of discontinuity and spatial fragmentation where most activities are compartmentalized in a series of some fleeting encounters as well as impressions of just little duration.

According to some researchers, the mobile devices reconfigure the spaces of the social life in the urban areas (Steve, 2002, pp. 296). Introduction of the communication technologies that do not require any connection at any fixed location has led to re examination of what is really meant as distance, proximity and mobility.

In a study conducted by (Rebecca, 2002, pp. 21-30), it revealed that Instant Messaging has been globally adopted by the teenagers. There was a study of 16 teenage IM users. The study had shown some differences in the nature of mobile use between the college and high school teens. The differences were accounted by the teenager’s autonomy degree, internet access as well as transportation access. However, the article lacked deep analysis of the reason behind increase of teenage use of mobile phones. The author should have given some reasons like communicating with their partners or even family. Mobile phones are even used to send money between people who live far apart thus increased on its popularity.

 

There are numerous gaps in the study of mobile technology. Most of the case studies have not focused on the use of mobile phones alone and how it influences people and businesses but have focused so much on other means of communication like the internet. The studies have also failed to focus in details on the negative effects of mobile technology and only focusing on the affirmative side thus rendering most of the case studies biased.

The cultural shifting as well as the blending landscape that is occupied by various users usually fractures intimate relationships with cultural differences as well as physical distance. Use of the mobile phones helps people to negotiate on such relationships as well as the liminal spaces which are created by close couples of the modern life who have conservative values, coexistence of both local and global and the main tension which is experienced by the young people who are focused on being independent though connected with the people they love. High amount of mobile communication between couples is usually directly related to affirmative outcomes. Mobile communication hence reduces some relational uncertainty thus increasing intimacy.

The previous research has focused a lot on the importance of mobile phones in relationships and businesses though there is nothing much that has yet been written. The mobile technology has developed over years because of the reduced costs and its effectiveness. The colleges and generally the students as well as the teenagers have been the main methodology focus and have been used as the case study to denote the popularity of the mobile phones. There should be increased methodology on the same focusing on the businesses, the negative aspects of the mobile phones and generally the rate at which the popularity of the mobile phones have increased and the reasons behind the increase. To avoid biased results there should be analysis of all ages and gender in relation to the mobile technology. Carrying out of this research will help to give analysis and more insight on mobile technology and its effectiveness as well as its limitations. It will help the future researchers to focus on getting more detailed information on the same.

Mobile technology has changed the lives of many and has made life simpler in everyday life and in most sectors of life. Be it in businesses, relationships, effective communication, giving importance and prominence to privacy, carrying out researches and getting people involved in the ICT careers, mobile technology can never be underestimated. However, there are numerous limitations as the literature available has failed so far to focus immensely on other imperative facets and given the affirmative more prominence and priority. Future research and researchers should try to focus deeply on the topic in order to avoid bias and vague results.

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The internet has been appropriately used in the spread and passing of communication messages over the last two decades effectively well. Nevertheless, at inception the roles the internet is currently playing never appeared forthcoming. Internet applications seem to be getting the traditional media my surprise and storm that was earlier projected.

Internet seems to be finding more utility across board. The youth and the elderly alike are using the internet and the World Wide Web in the accessing of vital information. Internet however, seems to be enjoying a number of competitive advantages over the traditional media. Inherently, internet is devoid of censorship as is the case with broadcast media and written media. Newspapers and television are normally extensively censored to ensure that the information reaching the readers is feed no indoctrinating information.

The transmission of internet information is relatively faster compared to the traditional media. This seems to give the internet an edge over the various traditional media. Althaus & Tewksbury argue that this makes the internet and the World Wide Web a preferred choice for consumers. Besides the distribution costs of the information available through the internet is marginally lower compared to the traditional media. On their part Waal & Schoenbach assert that given the economic nature and rationality of consumers, they have to seek the medium which is relatively cheap to them; internet appears to be such type of media.

The World Wide Web according to John, Yan & Zhan, has been used in accessing the information and the news from the traditional media. This further makes the internet a preferred alternative by many consumers. Most consumers will prefer to have all their products under one roof; the internet seems to offer this preference with much efficacy yet is very cheap. In addition the internet has been used to access a variety of information simultaneously; this further makes the internet and the World Wide Web more popular with most of the consumers.

In retrospect, those who use the internet have been found though research to love readership that those people who use traditional media such as the radio and the television. Consequently, one will argue that the internet is promoting the readership culture which has bee found to be dwindling over the years. Subsequent, Waal & Schoenbach assert that the internet and the World Wide Web has been found to gratify the desires of most of the reading class with variety.

The youth have argued that the internet has a high superiority than are the traditional media. This is because along with the passing of information and news to the readers and visitors of these sites, the internet also provides other sites that offer entertainment alongside the functional aspect of passing information. On their part the traditional media largely offer singular services at a time. This doubles up the utility of the internet as a medium of communication.

The television and the radio can presently be accessed through the internet. This is perhaps the troubling part about the interaction between the internet and the traditional media. While the internet was initially meant to supplement the other forms communications the internet is apparently substituting the traditional media altogether. Waal & Schoenbach state that this has started rendering the traditional media obsolete, redundant, and inappropriate and less convenient.

In their view John, Yan & Zhan, find the traditional media have over time been seen as less effective because of the lack of interaction that has been found to run through most of the traditional media. Overall this characteristic feature of traditional media makes the internet and the World Wide Web have a competitive advantage over them altogether.  Internet allows for prompt feed back.

Traditional media have remained over the years to be single directional.  In the beliefs of Althaus & Tewksbury this feature makes the internet exceptional makes most consumers have preference for this medium. This has been made possible through lead links that makes it possible for the reader and visitors of the various sites to have salient concerns addressed without contact with the developers of the different sites on the internet. This interaction lacks in the other traditional media and hence leveraging the internet above them.

According to Althaus & Tewksbury, the youth in particular and the young have a lot of anxiety over the computer. This makes them have preference to the internet than they have for traditional media. In addition, the developers of the various sites spice the sites with varying entertaining features that make the sites addictive to those who visits them. Subsequently, the visitors of the sites start developing a dislike for traditional media.

At the development of the internet and the World Wide Web, the central objective was to develop a medium for communication and not an medium for entertaining, this dynamic feature has seen the internet transform from a mere source of communication to a multivariate medium that provides this incidental services at ago.

It emerges from the foregoing discussion that the revolutionary nature of the internet remains less so; because the adoption of the use of the internet results in the reduction in the use of other traditional media. Waal & Schoenbach asserts that this contravenes the founding principles for which the internet was ardently developed and designed. The consumption behaviour of the internet users eats unplanned into the incomes of the users. John, Yan & Zhan, argue that this makes the internet a counterproductive venture within the economic precincts.

The displacement of the traditional media by the internet has been massive. While this displacement would not be ardently brought out through this paper, it is projected that the newspapers and the broadcast will suffer an immense blow. This is seen to be dependent on the media complexities that have been prompted by the media environment and the changing trends in the internet world.

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1.0 Introduction

As the number of people and the radiologists in practice dwindle, there has been an immense need for all the physician extenders who are in radiology (Donna, JEFF, James, Vicki, Tony, Randy, Jackson & Richard, 2008).  Radiologists Assistants have an immense potential of becoming a vital component as far as radiology is concerned as they reduce the work loads as well as the burden for the responsibilities in the area of their practice. This paper hence focuses on the rationale and the major reason why radiologists’ assistants increase productivity. It will also focus on the available literature review and its limitations as well as recommendations.

1.1 Rationale

The RA productivity is imperative in the fact that productivity do serve as the main perquisite in improving  of radiology care and to some extent patients might not get full attention and care without being helped by the RA’s. This topic will hence focus on giving some limelight on the importance of RA’s as far as productivity is concerned.

1.2 Research Questions

• Does Radiologists Assistants increase productivity?
• What is the importance of Radiology in medicine?
• What are the problems in radiologist profession?

1.3 Research problem

There has been a shortage among the radiologist workforce which makes it complex for the patients to access quality care thus there is increased time of waiting, complaints and complications that make the quality of care quite poor. The responsibilities of RA in the improving of productivity as well as efficiency can be enhanced.

2.0 Literature review

It is usually assumed that the RA as well as the radiology practitioner assistant (RPA) work similarly as the physician extenders (Rebecca, Beth & William, 2009). Radiologist profession is usually associated with heavy shortages of the workforce thus the radiologists find it quite complex to go ahead and cope with the responsibilities (Jane, Brian, Lisa, Manuel & Darla, 2000). The RA is effective solution to the challenging issues and hence could enhance productivity of the radiology departments.

The RA’s cooperate with the radiographers in interpreting studies and since there is complexity of the entire imaging process, there is a need for professional radiologist’s assistants (Nightingale & Hogg, 2007, pp. 284-290).  The RA can support the radiologists in their functions through assisting them in the double reading, and hence the reports and interpretations can become the main measure of quality among the RA’s. The RA’s can easily resolve issues to do with patient dissatisfaction, long waiting times, insensitivity, lack of communication and other issues.

2.1 De limitations

There has been insufficiency of vast case studies focusing on the role of RA’S and their importance.

3.0 Recommendations

There ought to be further research on the importance of radiologists’ assistants and how they increase productivity. With the rate of shortages in the workforce, there ought to be more information on the RA’s and their importance in the radiology field.

4.0 Conclusion

Radiologists Assistants are increasingly being recognized as effectual solution to radiology care issues. Shortages in the workforce lead the radiologists to perform more routine functions. The RAs are beneficial options to the hospitals as they improve productivity and care through the reduced waiting times, enhanced quality, efficient interactions of the patients, and reduced numbers of lawsuits and complications for malpractice.

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Introduction

Healthcare organizations and professionals avidly address the issue of ethnic and racial disparities as well as multicultural diversity in health . Purnell’s model is a major circle which represents an immense global society which consists of politics as well as communications, warfare and conflicts, famines and natural disasters, commerce, businesses, information technology, space exploration and the aptitude of the people to travel globally and interact. The model allows for assessment of a modern culture by focusing on 12 domains which are found in each culture. The model structure focuses on the community level to individuals ( Purnell, 2002, pp. 193-196). It generally takes into account that one must comprehend the society at large as well as their norms before they are applicable in communicating with a specific person.  The domains comprise of inhabited localities, overview, communication, topography, family organization and roles, bicultural ecology, workforce issues, nutrition, childbearing and pregnancy practices, spirituality and death rituals and finally health care providers (Purnell, 2000, pp. 40-46).   This paper hence focuses on death rituals and spirituality according to Purnell’s model.

Death rituals

Death rituals comprise of how the culture as well as the individuals view rituals, death as well as behaviors in preparation for burial practices and death (Louise & Carolyn, 2008, pp. 235). Some of the bereavement behaviors are also included in the domain. The rituals which surround death do reflect greatly on what death means to divergent societies and culture. It drives on this question. Is death a failure as far as medical science is concerned, a part of life’s circle or basically an ultimate liberation?

The Haiti people are culturally sensitive and  incase they realize the time of death is impending, the family gather together to cry, pray as well as use spiritual artifacts and religious medallions (Cosgray, 1999, pp. 482-507, Miller, 2000, pp. 204-11).  They usually prefer dying in their homes rather than in the hospital (American Geriatrics Society, 2006,  pp. 87).  Autopsy is usually allowed in some circumstances and in case death is seen to be caused by maleficence, then autopsy can be done. It can also be done to make sure that the body is dead and essentially not a zombie (Haitian information bureau, 1994). The bereavement practices comprise of dernier priye, veye as well as prise de deuil (Haitian information bureau, 1994). This process helps the soul to pass to the next world. Prise de deuii does take place on the seventh day and is similar to the funeral which hence begins on mourning period (Haitian information bureau, 1994).

Spirituality

It comprises of the use of prayers and religious practices. It also focuses on the meaning of life as well as where people get to gain their strength (Louise & Carolyn, 2008, pp. 235). It also involves a connectedness in search of a meaning with an immense power which is broader than religious beliefs.  The Haiti people do practice two religions namely Voodoo and Christianity (Andre,  2007, pp. 292).  Catholicism was the main religion that was introduced to the Haitians and thereafter the Protestantism. Most of them are quite active in church as religion helps in shaping their entire cultural identity. The Voodoo religion was believed to have been brought in with the slaves to Haiti and hence considered to be the national religion(Andre,  2007, pp. 292).  It has no any hierarchy or theology. In Voodoo, they believe in a god called Bon Dieu who has three spirits namely the dead, loa and twins. The loa are usually the forces of health, reproduction, evil and good (Andre,  2007). The twins are usually descendants of one god and the Haiti people believe that incase the twins are remembered during religious ceremonies, they will hence help to improve life (Andre,  2007). The dead are considered to be helpful and part of the family. The major tenet of Voodoo is to heal the people from their sickness and the priests are paid for healing and other activities like spelling casts.

Conclusion

Purnell model is very abstract, quite comprehensive as far as content is concerned, has some form of logical congruence as well as conceptual clarity which demonstrates a clinical perspective and utility. It helps the health professionals in offering individualized , appropriate care and culturally competent care to the patients. It can as well be used in accessing families, community and the society. It is quite easy to apply and is relevant to any cultural setting.

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The use of White Collar Crime in referring to a particular category of deviant or illegal conduct is a major feature in the linguistic landscape. Though criminologists have disagreed on the meaning of this term they have been however talking about it for a very long time. The definition of White Collar Crime as compared to that of abstract terms in social science, legal and philosophical discourse is immensely contested. The real definition varies across numerous linguistic practices and disciplines as criminologists have sought to find a universal meaning but most times they have landed on substitutes. This paper hence aims at giving particular attention to the definition of White Collar Crime, debates on the scope of this term, legal standing, meaning and its imperativeness as far as criminology is concerned.

White Collar Crimes usually affect major areas of our contemporary life.  For example manipulation of scientific data, financial scandals pension frauds, public and tax sector frauds, the detrimental activities of most corporations thus endangering the safety of the employees and consumers or even passengers (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 135) are examples of what can be termed as White Collar Crimes.  Though these acts are subject to criminal justice and criminal law, they are usually not regarded as crime in a similar way thus they are unlikely to prompt calls for punishment and tougher policing. The differences always arise according to the type of crime committed, the law broken, who is responsible for enforcing the law and the sanctions that are imposed (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 137). White Collar Crimes encompasses of a vast range of destructive activities though they are not popularly referred as crimes (Frank &Roger, 2008, pp. 152).            The detrimental nature of activities that is associated with white collar crimes have been widely recognized and analyzed. The morality behind capitalism has always been associated with these deviant activities. To early criminologists, crime was widely associated with activities that were done by low class offenders who populated the prisons and the courts (Larry, 2008, pp. 74). Research and theory sought to analyze and identify the main causes of crimes that were usually presumed to lie in pathologies of deprivation, poverty and individual offenders. This was however challenged by Sutherland who drew attention to most crimes that are not usually included in the scope of criminology and defined the term White Collar Crime as those crimes that are usually committed by people who are of high social status and respectable in their occupation (Hennessey & Tim, 2007,pp.136).  He associated this term with executives and business managers in order to differentiate their offences with the secret games that are done underground. Some of the crimes that can be referred to as White Collar crimes are occupational, corporate, state, environmental, computer and financial crimes as well as consumer scams (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 137-138).  This hence means that the meaning of white collar crime encompasses a great range of legal, philosophical, social science, coercion and also use of violence and it is all round.

Having knowledge about White collar crime in criminology is quite important since most of these forms of crimes go unreported and the victims continue to complain of the losses (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 142).  Debates on the control and causes of White Collar crimes usually connect to divergent political evaluations of transgression of businesses, personality traits, capitalism and others (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 143).

White Collar crime is a vast term that comprise of various types of some nonviolent offences that involve unlawful financial transactions and fraud. It comprises of bribery, counterfeiting, bank fraud, blackmail, forgery, embezzlement, tax evasion, insider trading, money laundering and some antitrust violations (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 139-141).  Law enforcements officials do agree that these crimes are a major problem which are quite complex to document since these crimes are under different categories. Over many years, various regulations covering areas such as business have already been enacted thus with more laws there have been numerous prosecutions. During mid 1980, Australia made great efforts to fight and reduce the increase of white collar crime. There was introduction of smart regulations which focused on issuing notices of warning, making the prosecutions public to deter the offenders, exemplary prosecutions to high profile people through imprisoning them or imposing heavy fines, shutting down any questionable operation and entering into premises and seizing the use of certain documents among others (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 144-145).

These powers are now widely used in various institutions and there has also been enforcement of laws in relation to White collar crimes. However, governments across nations ought to come up with more firm laws and where they need to regulate business policies they ought to decide where they really need to focus their entire efforts and whether it is on complaint based prosecutions and investigations or on some proactive prevention strategies (Bruce, 2010, pp. 433). The government also needs to increase resources for investigation as most agencies allege that they have no sufficient resources for investigation (Hennessey & Tim, 2007, pp. 147).

The importance of studying about White Collar crime in criminology is not simply because of its provision of an immense contrast of common crimes that are mostly focused in criminological work, but it is its aptitude to explore and examine the diversity of the offenders as far as the white collar crime category is concerned. It is very relevant in all business and corporate dealings and it hence will help the criminologists identify with such kind of crimes.

Despite debates, ambiguity and controversies that have emerged for many years, is the fact that the offences have a vast impact to people and businesses as they cause harm to the victims. Though White collar crime is a term that is quite ambiguous, the trivial crimes should not be taken for granted as they also fall under the same category of White Collar Crime. There ought to be grave commitment in order to reduce the increase of these crimes from the government.

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Abstract

Cross cultural studies have been very important in the analysis of human behaviour. These studies cut across a number of elements that are incidental in the livelihood of humanity. This paper seeks to review the pertinent aspects handled under cross cultural studies with specific reference to pregnancy nutrition and high risk behaviour. While the other factors such as education, economy and politics are also incidental in the personality of an individual, the paper will mention them partially. Overall, the three aspects, pregnancy, nutrition and the high risk behaviours are the main determinant of the human behaviour.
 

 Pregnancy

Over the years, pregnancy has been correlated with insemination and intercourse. Contraceptive use has become very common across different cultures. The fertility of persons has been largely determined by contraceptive use by the person. On the other hand Eysenck and Abdel-Khalek (Eysenck, S B.G., Abdel-Khalek, A M., 1989) argue that the wrong use of the contraceptive would well end up affecting the personality of the new born baby. Some community believe that pregnancy is only determined by God and therefore interference through contraceptive is sinful and unethical altogether.

Pregnancy in most communities is meant to bring happiness. Midwifery is equally placed central in the birthing process, with most cultures only allowing their children to be born with the aid of a mid wife at home. Ideally, Fernández and Tuset (Fernández, T., Tuset, A. M., 2007) state that pregnancy among women was not meant to make women refrain from their daily chores. Nevertheless, prenatal stages have been treated across the cultures with utmost care and consideration.  In ascertaining the vitality of the prenatal stage, women were refrained from eating certain meals. These meals were believed to be unhealthy for the pregnant woman.
On their part Eysenck and Renner (Eysenck, S B. G., Renner, W., A, 1987) argue that people who were dreaded in society were not allowed access both the pregnant woman nor to the new born baby. Besides, the woman had restrictions on her sexual activities. Physical activities for the pregnant woman was seen a paramount act for the expectant woman. The woman was expected to walk, squat, massage the belly and sit as part of the prenatal therapy. Richter and Brandstrom (Richter, J., Brandstrom, S., 1999) state that most of the labour requirements were handled by women peers and the husband was utterly locked out of the entire scene. Once the child was born, the mother and the child were confined for some time.

During the period the child and the mother were viewed as very susceptible to diseases and infections. Fernández and Tuset (Fernández, T., Tuset, A. M., 2007) argue that dietary was even more restricted during postpartum. The child and the mother were even more restricted from the consumption of certain foods. Bathing for the child and the mother were equally treated as cardinal therapies. Most importantly breast feed was very important across most cultures and any deprivation was believed to have effects on not only the child but the mother. The upbringing of the child was the prerogative of the entire community once the child had stopped being breast fed.

Nutrition

Food is a very important component of humanity. Across most communities the nature of food used has been the preserve of economic statue. In some communities, food has been used for good will and even as loans. This has been done with the view that the same would be returned times of need. Hence was used as one of the aspects of bonding. Across most cultures, Richter and Brandstrom (Richter, J., Brandstrom, S., 1999) find men being given more food than the children and the women. Food was equally used in the establishment of new relations with confidantes and relationships. Church (Church, 2001) states that most notable food varieties were used to signify the importance of certain occasions in society.

It has already been mentioned that food also placed a very cardinal role in the prenatal and postpartum care of the child and the mother. Consequently, food was also used in the determination of certain faiths and beliefs. Communities believed that the consumption of certain foods was a contravention of the faith. Some of the foods were associated with certain ailments just as some ailments were associated with the lack or the deficiency of certain foods. Overall the right foods were seen as promoting the health status of persons and their personality altogether.

High Risk Behaviour 

High risk behaviours formed most of the ethical teachings of most communities. Sexually transmitted diseases were viewed as a common transeptal outcome of immoral behaviour. Polygamy according to Eysenck and Renner (Eysenck, S B. G., Renner, W., A, 1987) was discouraged across most communities with the belief that it did result in such high risk health complications. Once persons were identified with certain ailments, treatments were started. A lot of premium was placed on the exercises. Individuals were advised to have some time to get gym activities for their bodies to remain healthy.

Smoking was discouraged for being associated with most of the cardiovascular diseases. Overweight complications were also associated with smoking. Across most cultures, Church, A. (Church, 2001) asserts that being fat was associated with health while being slim showed that one had poor health. Sick persons were termed as incapable of working and were supposed to seek medication. Vividly, the besides the education of a person, the upbringing played a cardinal role in the modelling of the personality as an individual. Politics was also an important determinant of the personality of individuals as it could lead to imitation and consequently lead to personality influence.

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Human beings encounter numerous germs that cause diseases every other day. Apparently each of the germs has the capability of making human being ill. The susceptibility to the diseases will always differ from one person to the other.  While germs have been found to be the major causes of illnesses, they are not the sole causes of body complications. One other factor that does cause body instability is stress. The coping and the social support requisite for coping with stress determines the development of transeptal sicknesses. Chronic stress has been found to highly contribute to the contraction of illnesses

There is sufficient evidence that there exists a correlation between health and physical exercises. Though the extend of stress moderating effect is not dully established, the shear fact that health can depend on the frequency of physical exercise shows that health challenges can be addressed through physical exercises. Ament & Verkerke (Ament & Verkerke, 2009, p 201) argue that physical exercises emerge as a relatively effective buffer for stress with the least side effect and the easiest therapy with minimum costs. While there is not much investigation that t has been undertaken on the aspect, social research shows that persons who are engaged in physical activities have lower chances of being devastated by stress.

Discussion

Studies have shown that people who more frequently engage in exercises exhibit low health complications. Overall, studies have underscored exercises as a pertinent health resource. Though it needs to be formally appreciated that more research is required to unravel the relationship in scientific and empirical terms, this would suffice the role of exercise as buffers of stress and preventive therapies for stress.

Timmons & Raha (Timmons and Raha 2008, p 419) states that stressful events through life have a large contribution to the exposure of individuals to some viruses. Common cold viruses have been largely associated with stress and that common cold would easily be gotten rid through the use of physical exercises.  Psychological stress has also been found to increase the susceptibility to agents of infections. In additions such stressful cases were found to go hand in hand with cold catching.

It is also of great import to note that stress and illnesses have been found to be mediated by a distinct biological process. Østergård, T., et al (Østergård, T., et al, 2006, 999) states that the susceptibility to illnesses has been found to be equally influenced by the type of personality that the stressed person would be harbouring. Introverted persons tend to show their stress physically, more than the extroverts. Hence the physical involvement and activity of the introverts will try to reduce the effect of their stress and therefore their health.

It is presently acknowledge able that many diseases of physical orient have very close relationships with stressful experiences o may be exacerbated by stressful experiences. Today stress reduction has become one of the major therapies that run through the treatment of most of the diseases. This has been evidenced through the efforts being made even by insurance companies in trying to sponsor programmes that can assist in the reduction of stress.

Psychoneuroimmunology, according to (Schnohr, et al, 2006, p 82) is taking root in the medical cycles because of the numerous insurmountable ailments that have been found to respond to physical exercises. Stress relief and reduction forms the core of the study. The immune system has been found to respond. While the physiotherapists term the relationship between stress and physical well being as casual, emerging studies are finding the relationship immense. People who are stressed according to studies take long to have their wounds healed than those who have no stress.

Stress has been found to be only managed and not treated. It is the proper utilization of the fundamental coping mechanisms that is seen to pay sufficient dividend towards the healing process. Prayer has been found to be an effective stress buffer. However, relaxation through yoga and meditation can offer the best therapy for buffering stress. Johnson-Kozlow et al (Johnson-Kozlow et al 2004, p 482) says that leisurely activities and the engagement in personal hobbies can also be used in the reduction of stress. Altogether, it is evident that stress would impede the efficacy in the functioning of the body and hence hamper the physical wellness of an individual.

There is however no clear cut correlation between illness and life events. Personalities also fall in to double up towards the effect of illness on an individual’s, yet the same personality determines to a large extend the capability of the management of stress. Research shows that melancholic are capable to a large extend to manage stressful experiences than phlegmatic persons. According to Ensel & Lin (Ensel & Lin, 2004, p 89) sociable persons particularly extraverts have been found to recuperate relatively first because they tend to exhibit stress-free traits. Subsequent to the foregoing, research suggests that extraversions will allow fewer cases of ailments compared to introverts. This is because the extroverts release their stress relatively first and therefore remain free of stress and only need to cope with ailment other than the introverts have to cope with stresses and fight ailments at the same time because they keep their stressful states to themselves.

According to Cohen (Cohen, p 140) the persistence of stress reduces the activity of sympathetic nerves. The epinephrine is also reduced within the body system coupled with increase in the production of the corticosteroid. If this trend continues for a longer time some of the bodily resources can break down and therefore making the physical wellbeing ravaged. Stressful traumatic events can some times trigger biological and behavioural body process that contributes diseases contraction.

Shaffer & Merrens (Shaffer & Merrens, 2004, p 199) asserts that the perception of individuals has been found to contribute immensely to the stressful states of an individual according to research perception of stressful unfolding has been found to contribute to the healing of an individual. Similarly individuals who are stressed have been found to develop poor eating habits which imply that such persons do not have sufficient energy in their bodies to fight ailments. Besides, according to Hochman, (Hochman, 2008, p 192) the perception that one will encounter some bad experiences makes an individual to have a lot adrenaline release which double up the body illness healing prospect.

Stressed persons have been found to hardly think about their wellbeing. Given that healing from sickness is equally psychological, it becomes imperative that to increase the rate at which one recuperates, he has to have psychological calm and peace of mind. (Gerber & Puhse, 2009, p 819) argues that once one find some time for stress relief the recuperation path becomes smooth and fast. Within this argument it becomes utterly relevant that any one who is stressed finds some peace of mind that is incidental for the invalid of the convalescent to recuperate faster. Overall, it is becoming near common knowledge that extensive stress impede physical wellness.

Casey & Tkaczyk (Casey, S., Tkaczyk, 2004, p 168) argues that coping with life challenges such as sickness becomes complicated when the person that is afflicted has stress. Physical wellbeing encourages the stressed person to have hope replete of the cause of the stress the invalid would be undergoing. Athletes have been found to be less susceptible to disease than persons who work in offices. Research carried out on athletes showed that there were less stress afflicted and hardly fell ill. During their practice session, the research reveals that they tend to forget their stressful experiences.

The feeling of being unwell according to Shaffer & Merrens (Shaffer & Merrens, 2004, p 199) makes the persons even more stressed. Hence the physical well being of the persons makes it easier for the person to deal with the stresses. The cardiovascular endurance of the body and the body aerobic fitness has an immense role in the relieving of stress. (Roddenberry & Renk 2010, p 361) asserts that during physical exercises the cardiovascular capability of the body is enhanced and therefore making it relatively easier to deal with stress. The stress can be managed through ensuring that one is very busy and dully involved in some rigorous activity that can’t allow much attention to the stressful experiences.  If this is sustained for a long time it is possible the stressful encounter can be forgotten and therefore contributing to the well being of the patient or the stressed person.

Physical well being according to Cohen (Cohen, p 137) is not only psychological but it is also very physical. Where the psyche feels unwell, it becomes imperative that it could take sometime to attain the requisite well being. Stress within this context tends to impede the psychological aspect of being well. It is also found to be fundamentally importance that the physical exercises are done in social groups to assist in the recuperation and forgetting the stressful encounters. Persons who are stressed readily get over the stresses when they interact with people who are stress-free during physical exercises.

Conclusions

In conclusion stress contributes to the physical well being of an individual. It is therefore imperative that in sustaining the well being of an individual one has to ensure that stress is absence or reduced to a level that is health supportive. Other factor such as personality is vital in the management of the stress state of persons and should be dully understood to assist in the control or the management of stress. Within the strength of the foregoing, it is evident that though there isn’t much scientific research on the matter, stress has a lot of influence on the physical well being of a person.

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The once overwhelming giant of all sorts seems to be facing an imminent collapse in its educational prospects. America is facing immense challenges in its education system. This is evident across both its competitors and admirers alike. While there is no universally appreciable cause for this, it is concise that unless addressed, the superpower is getting to the doldrums. The causal factors transcend provisional aspects but are mainly social and psychological as most of the top American educationists content.

According to Leo, (Leo, p 14) the American social fabric seems to tearing apart. Ironically America boasts of insurmountable reinforcement for its younger generation. The discovery of the computer, the most deadly weapons, the most advanced technological skill emanate from this educational falling great country. Apparently the American child is so overprotected yet with belated concern that the child ends up being ruined. Kristof says, ‘Increased schooling created a more stable society, less prone to the conflicts that have raged elsewhere in Central America.’

The drop out rates seems to be increasing; rather then be treated as a concern for the society, families take it as a private issues. Herbert implicates the seriousness of the issue with the analysis that gives of one drop out per 34 minutes shows the gravity of the problem, “While the nation struggles to strengthen the economy,” the report said, “the educational capacity of our country continues to decline.” This shows the gravity of the matter.

Pane and Salmon-Florida (Pane & Salmon-Florida, p 289) argue that the socialisation of the American children have become to be a preserve of the social networks and therefore making the possibility of effective communication an inconceivable issue. This communication is apparently the major hindrance to educational accomplishments.  While earlier generations treated the teachers and instructors and custodians and confidantes, the generation of the day treats teachers as mere carriers of requisite skills and nothing beyond this perception. This notions not only impedes the possible influence the teacher is supposed to have on the learners but also the psychologically creates a wall between the two interacting parties.

According to Leo, (Leo, p 14) reinforcement of whatever type in the American spheres is near to absent. Learners are neither reprimanded nor praised for their good performance in learning institutions. While the reinforcement theories have many roots within the American soil, the applicability today seems to have been utterly discarded as a prerequisite for effective learning. Kristof asserts that Interactive learning within the American systems seems to waning with time. She argues that while education is meant to be a multidimensional process involving the inculcating of positive values, believes and skills; it is evident that the values have be dropped somehow along the process. Malcolm calls this homemade education where those education systems seems to emphasis family ideals that group ideals ‘I suppose it was inevitable that as my word-base broadened, I could for the first time pick up a book and read and now begin to understand what the book was saying’.

According to Berkin the present parenting makes the learning more interested in passing their exams that the acquisition of the required knowledge. “Will this be on the test?” “Does grammar count?” “Do we have to read the whole chapter?” “Can I turn in my paper late?” this evidences that the present American learning is more of examination orient that is oriented towards the acquisition of skills and knowledge. Besides, the attitude for learning and acquiring skills has not been dully cultivated hence making learning more of a coercion that an interest.

On his part Roosevelt asserts that the learners of the day in the American system are more interested in the grades than they are interested in the real acquisition of skills and knowledge, ‘If you put in all the effort you have and get a C, what is the point’.  The professor argues that this has been precipitated by the parents’ demand who are interested in the scores than they are interested in the skills acquired.  Overall, Berkin argues that the utter emphasis of the grades seems to be eroding than evaluating the American educational system, “Will this be on the test?” “Does grammar count?” “Do we have to read the whole chapter?” “Can I turn in my paper late?” All the four papers have consensus that the American system has all that it requires to offer quality and applicable education. However, they feel that the changing social systems are doing much harm than good to the educational prospects. This has been precipitated by the ignored-yet-ever increasing school drop out rates.

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 Introduction

Truthfulness is one of the most crucial character foundations as far as effective police officers are concerned though there has been a growing frustration on what has seemed to be an extensive deficiency of integrity as well as lack of support for any disciplinary measures by appointed boards as well as politically elected members. The main root of all evil is as a result of lack of truthfulness either from uninspired working performance as well as excessive force. Integrity and ethics should be the main target and main issues to be considered during evaluation of any internal investigation. When the officers are truthful on misconduct, it is crucial to give them affirmative reinforcement through citing the case as being a mitigating factor. It is imperative to make it clear that lying among police officers is a major termination offense (Richard, 2004, pp. 164). This paper will hence analyze a case brought to my attention of an officer who used one of the computers in the patrol division inappropriately.

The case scenario

It has been brought to my attention by my Deputy Chief of Police that one of the officers who were investigated was inappropriately using one of the computers in the patrol division.  It was hence determined that the officer used the computer to search for pornographic web sites. When he was confronted with the contention, this officer denied of having any knowledge on this incident. On further investigation, the computer crime analyst determined on the fact that the officer log in password had been used to enter the unauthorized web sites. The officer hence admitted to the wrongdoing and affirmed that it would never happen any other time. This officer has been with my organization for 15 years and the only disciplinary action that was taken against him had been for being involved in a traffic accident 10 years ago.

Definitions and discussion

The police officers’ inappropriate use of the computer to view some sexually explicit information and material which are personal and unrelated to the officials job function is completely unethical. This can cause peoples lives to be immensely affected and hence the strict action as a warning to the rest of the officers. The department policy clearly states that the computers which are owned by the municipality should not be used for inappropriate and personal subjects. There is obviously no any room in the law enforcement for such kind of behavior and the only way to protect the integrity of the entire department is by terminating the officer as a future warning against such dubious actions.

The main risks for inappropriate use of the computers are the fact that it can lead to hostile lawsuits as well as drain the IT resources (Network world, 2003, pp. 58).  Pornography is also an infamous means used to entice the users to sites which are ripe as far as security risks are concerned for example viruses (Network world, 2003, pp. 58). There are restrictions on the state employees as far as access to the information infrastructure is concerned. The Code of Virginia 2. 2.2827 states that there is no any agency employee who is allowed to print, download, access or store information which contains contents that are sexually explicit (William & Barbara, 2006,  pp. 659).

The exculpatory evidence as well as the police officer are evidences and information which if they were to be believed can be materially highly approving to the defense as it can cause and contribute to reason beyond doubt to the guilt of the defendant. The police officer already has a record of untruthfulness as he lied of having knowledge on the alleged accusations of having used the computer inappropriately. In September 2007, Washington published its first opinion and held that any police officer who lied ought to b fully terminated in matters of public policy (West Publishing co., st Paul, 2001).

In this case the police officer ought to be terminated for the erratic behavior as well as untruthfulness. The police officer is not fit for duty because of concerns on his aptitude to go ahead and testify. For example in the case between Brady v. Maryland, the USA supreme court did rule that the prosecutor had to release information which was favorable to the accused on request (Mathew, 2010, pp. 544).   Therefore, if the police officer was to testify in any criminal proceeding, then the prosecutor would be ethically and legally obliged to disclose on any history concerning untruthfulness to the defense counsel. The main reason why I would terminate him is because his proven record of being dishonest totally prevents him from any useful service him being a law enforcement officer. Whether he apologized or not, to accept his reinstatement to any position of public trust where he will not serve will obviously violate the public policy.

In another case Moscow v. United Paper Workers International Union, it was recognized that the court can set any arbitration award incase the arbitration award in question created conflicts with the legal precedents and other laws (Desmond, 1998, pp. 277). The impact on this decision of public policy in Washington is the fact that the officers if they were found to be untruthful, then any appeal concerning their termination was limited on issues of whether the untruthfulness had been proven or not. If that was the case, then the judicial authority and arbitration panel was in no any position to reduce on the penalties.

I have put strict policies which are known to everyone and hence violation of the policies was intentional on the part of the police officers hence termination is the best remedial in this case. The other option is to put this officer who has impeachment problems in the administrative assignments in a position whereby there will never be a likelihood of him ever becoming a witness in any criminal case but obviously this will just be creating the liars squads. Refusal to terminate him will just employ a portion of some commissioned workforce who are unable to investigate and testify on crimes that are related to investigations.

In Giglio v United States, it was held that when reliability of a witness is either determined as innocent or guilty, the nondisclosure of any evidence that affects credibility hence falls within the rule of the fact that suppression of evidence does justify a trial irrespective of whether bad or good faith of the prosecution (John, Henry & Christopher. 2008, Pp. 83).  Therefore as a chief of police municipality, letting the police officer go scot-free will obviously implicate future proceedings as he already holds a record of untruthfulness thus making him incredible. In the United States v. Agurs, the court expended the rule and held that the prosecutors had a constitutional duty of turning over any exculpatory information to the defense counsel (Dean, 2005, pp. 433).  The court went a step further in Kyles v. Whitley and determined that the prosecutors had a duty to go ahead and learn on any favorable evidence which was clear to others and acted on behalf of the police (John, Henry & Christopher. 2008, Pp. 82).

There are so many cases that do condemn untruthfulness as well as dishonesty among the government employees. In the case of LaChance v. Erickson there were a number of government workers who were merged under the same decision (Zvi, Alan, Benjamin, Manfred & Jean.  2000, Pp. 522).   The underlying facts on one of the cases were described in the case of King v. Erickson. Erickson had been terminated for making some false statements and unbecoming conduct. His denials were hence determined to be untruthful. Therefore the supreme court in their unanimous decision affirmed on the ability of the agency to terminate Erickson for being untruthful and cited the case between Bryson v United States where the court held that the legal system offered methods of challenging the right of the government to go ahead and ask questions though lying was an exception (Zvi, Alan, Benjamin, Manfred & Jean.  2000, Pp. 526).  They held that a citizen can refute to answer the question or answer it with honesty but he ought not with impunity and in their right mind answer falsely.

In title 7 of section 7-294d of  Connecticut General Statute, it offers that any officer who have committed acts which would fabricate physical evidence or made any false statements in violation of particular state statutes they might have their certification revoked or cancelled (Alasco & Henry, 1899). The impact of all this is if any police officer is found to be intentionally lying in a way which does constitute the violation of such statutes, they hence will not be in a position to be hired as police officers in the entire state.

The major reasons for the final decision to terminate the employment of the officer is because of violations of section 5.2 of the regulations and rules of the police which requires all police officers to be truthful as well as section 2.3 of the police regulations and rules in regard to the unbecoming conduct of the police officer (Thomas, 2006, pp. 202).

Incase the commission through the preponderance of the entire evidence feels there was a reasonable and just cause for the police officer’s actions, then it shall go ahead and affirm the entire action and it will hence reverse the action returning the police officer to his initial position without having to lose rights or compensation. This will only happen if the police officer proves to all of us that the action was based on some harmful error.

On the first charge, the appellant knew very well that it was against the law and also the policies of the department to go ahead and use the computer inappropriately for his personal reasons. However he committed another crime by lying to the investigators that he had no any knowledge on the same. Unfortunately for him, his mendacity pervaded the investigation.

I have based the strict disciplinary actions on the evidence gotten and also on the fact that the appellant testified finally of having used the computers erroneously. I have found out that the officer had engages in an unbecoming conducts and he was untruthful. Though his prior disciplinary history was not quite serious, that however does not at all warrant him any mitigation of the penalties. The grave nature of these charges including being untruthful warrants the discipline to be strictly imposed by termination.

Conclusion

Untruthfulness and inappropriate use of the systems’ infrastructures can result to various sanctions against individuals involved in both criminal as well as administration. It ruins the reputation of the officer as well as their career and can damage the law enforcement agency’s aptitude to maintain confidence and public trust which is a major component of the law enforcement’s main mission. The law enforcers ought to be cognizant on the negative effects of untruthful officers as they can lead to great effect to the agency mostly as impeachable witnesses during criminal trials. Truthfulness and high morals should be touted as the main core values that administrators ought to emphasize on. There should be termination of employment of all officers that are found to be unreliable and untruthful. In addition to the termination of the employment I will make sure that the agency actively does support revocation of the law enforcement certification of the officers if they are found to be incredible or untruthful in their duties. Ethical violations by the departmental personnel’s mostly untruthfulness should be handled in a rational manner. When the ethics violation is sustained, the office involved ought to be disciplined including desertification and termination. The main fundamental cornerstone of all ethical policing is truthfulness in all conditions. The professional and personal integrity of all the law enforcement practitioners is the main mortar which does hold the cornerstone in its proper place and hence should never be compromised.

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The name of any project will always give some insight into the activities and the dealings of any community based project. The council of mothers and their children addresses issues that deal with the plight of both women and children. The development of any proposal towards addressing of issues within the society should be designed such that from the very formative introductory remarks, the reader is able to figure out the objects of the organisation.

According to Mayo (Mayo, 1977, p 121) the vision of the organisation alludes to the inherent targets and driving pillars of any organisation. NCSMC clearly shows from the vision statement that it does endear to empower and respond to the plight of these two vulnerable groups. The needs of the single mothers are insurmountable and therefore the need to have an outfit that would perhaps address this issues saliently. Within the vision, it is evident that the founding segment of society feels that the legal standing of the mother and their children is at stake.

Overall, there is the need for children and mothers to be legally protected against any infringement into their rights. The outfit developed is meant to form a platform and a forum within which the follow-up for these critical human rights can be addressed and used in addressing the issues afflicting this tidal yet very vulnerable groups of society. The organisation also has a critical role of informing the parents on the government on the goings-on within the women and children spheres and making proposals towards combating the challenges.

Discussions

Community development organisation should spell out clearly their critical objectives and protection of the rights of the targets groups. Within this section, the critical human rights and life goals are stated to make clear the intention of the organisation within society and to inform the general public on their expectations from the organisation.

The organisation will always give a brief background within which the driving force behind the formation of the society or the organisation is based. The background also tries to describe the state under which the organisation is functioning stating the inherent weakness and the strength of the environment.  Similarly, the background alludes to the extent that the problem or the challenges being targeted have in any way been addressed and the gap that does exist between the ideal and the state as it is on the ground. Subsequent, this shows the gravity of the problem. Sponsors and well-wishers will come in to address what they deem to be within their jurisdiction or within the precincts of their founding objectives.

According to Andrew (Andrew, 1989, p102) the background will set parameters within which the organisation will be working and the areas that form the central pillars of the organisation. Within this section of the community organisation based initiative, the dates within which concern have been raised is shown and the areas of some of the shocking figures that attract the attention of the organisation. The monitoring of the implementation of the interventional prospects is done within these salient parameters.

The community based initiative has to mention the operation of the earlier players and the extent of the success of the intervention. Within this section, the mention and the quoting of figure is most inevitable and imperative. These figures are basically used in trying to show the gap between the expected state and the ideal state that the intervening organisation has to reach.

It is equally imperative that research that has been handled along the same line is quoted to show the gravity of the issues. Besides, Shirley and Fung (Shirley H., Fung, 1979, p 82) assert that the figure quoted will indicate to any interested parties the need and the possible areas of intervention. It is of equal importance too that the interventional organisation does give in-depth interventional strategies that have been undertaken in the passed so as to indicate the difference with the intended interventional strategy that the organization may adopt thereto. Consequently, the basis for which the organisation intends to intervene would be started so as to show the reason for which the organization has to come in.

The intervention of community based outfits or organisation will always make clear the role of the community within which it is working. Mayo (Mayo, 1977, p 102) argues that this is imperative as it sets the pace and gives the role of the community and facilitates the social feasibility thereto. Once the community within which the organization is functioning supports the initiative, the likelihood of the attainment of the set objectives is quite high.

The cadre of the community that will be involved in the implementation process should equally be identified. This ensures that those who are not directly involved are set aside so as not to interfere or have a role that is not as direct, neither do they deter the implementation process. This does ensure the implementation process does fall in place without much interference. Those who are directly involved also need to know the extent of their involvement.  Administratively, this ensures that the duplication of the duties is avoided and that there is a smooth flow of the implementation process.

Shirley and Fung (Shirley H., Fung K., 1979, p 67) argue that research should be undertaken so as to have key data that can guide the implementation process evaluation, monitoring and the follow-up. This research data will also form the basis for the development and determination of the benchmarks for implementers. Subsequent, researches that are congruent taken elsewhere should equally be revisited to assist in gauging the efficacy of the interventional strategy that has been adopted or that is to be adopted.

The need for any civic education should equally be gauged and set aside to the same effect. In cases where the intervention has to involve the education of the community on certain aspects, the training of the trainers should be well stated within the systems approach to community development. In addition, the advancement of the specialised workers to that same course should be made clear and a schedule of activities set aside.

Some times, there could profound effect of community education translating to the attainment of the objectives. Where this effect seems transcending rudimentary levels, it is imperative that the intervention gets to be sets within some slight yet narrow orthodoxy. Perhaps those coming in with the educational interventions should presume any such cognisance. Similarly, the raising of political consciousness falls hard on the intervenors and they should coin out the best option within which they can undertake the education for community development.

Community centres have been termed as the best start point for community civic education and should be largely utilised to leverage set objectives. Somehow the intervention should always be tied to specific and particular issues of the day that are of equal salience. Taking the case of Scotland for example in the years of 1975, the community based initiatives were amalgamated into the local structures of government and used in attainment of objectives that had been earlier termed as out of the reach of the government. This was lobbied within community education and made part of the government initiative yet was simply an initiative of the community.

The context within which any community based association endears to achieve the objectives is near imperative. The establishment of the organisation for the implementation and the source of funds have to be identified prior to the implementation process. Projects started within the community may some times get stalled along the way if they are not well handled. It is therefore very important that the sources of the funds are dully established before the implementation process does kick off.

More often, the workers that are utilised in the implementation process are those that volunteers and may only need to be paid some allowances to the same effect. Frances and Madine (Frances & Madine, 1979, p 401) state that employees who are to be involved therefore need to be well valued and the cost of their services budgeted for effectively and catered for within the implementation budget. Projects have to be implemented through an elaborately evaluated and monitored process. This can only be effective through proper and effective governance structures.

According to Shirley and Fung (Shirley and Fung 1979, p 432) the failures in the management of the implementation process will definitely prone a host of challenges for the community development programs. Subsequently, it becomes imperative and inevitable that the implementing agency develops effective and corruption free systems that ensures the smooth flow of processes and information. According to the systems theory to management, the failure by one of the components within any system may cause the entire systems to halts. Similarly, if the implementation process is faced by any challenges, the problem should be fixed immediately to ensure that the process remains smooth.

The beliefs that dully inculcated within the community of intervention are of equal import to the implementation agency. Those that are involved in the implementation ought to be dully sensitised on the beliefs that would underpin the implementation and the attainment of the objectives thereof. This beliefs form the basis for the development of the strategy that is to be used. Besides, this understands in the development of a rapport that would leverage the objective attainment process through enhanced social feasibility.

On their part Smith and Jones (Smith, L. and Jones, 1981, p 45) state the political orient of a people is of mandatory import in the implementation of any community based initiative. The political lass have to be fully involved to make the entire society view the interventional prospects with some objectivity. In additions this does enhance the political feasibility and support thereto. Rothman (Rothman, 2000, p 112) asserts that politics disfranchises the systems or makes them singular units. Within the strength of this argument, it is imperative that the political class assists in having the systems remain glued together to have the implementation smooth.

While theoretically the dilemma of the systems would not be easily amalgamated, this understanding according to Craig et al (Craig, et al 1982, p 72) would shade sufficient light on the functioning of the systems and the efficacy of coming into operation. Nevertheless, Popple (Popple:, 1995, p346) asserts that the understanding of the functioning of the various systems would assists in the development of effective strategy. Ideally, it is imperative that for the strategy adopted to be successful, the introduced intervention strategy should be able to function with the other existing systems; this satisfies the systems theory of management and administration.

The reinforcement of the operations of community initiatives are very incidental in the sustainability of strategy. Even within the systems theory to management, feedback has to be ardently monitored received and acted upon for the strategy to have effect on the community. The feedback receive can either be reinforced or appropriately modified to tend towards the desired objectives. Consequently the feedback developed should be explicitly and implicitly balancing.

Curno (Curno, 1978, p 73) asserts that sufficient offer of attention to the feedback through the project life is of paramount importance and should be treated thus. This should be done regardless of the dialogue context, task context nor private conversation. Feedbacks on the cultures, artefacts, and practice are of salient positioning within the implementation framework. Similarly, the values and objectives of the sponsors have to be treated as central components of the implementation phase of the community development programme under review.

The community project would have number stages with the system dynamics have central role within the implementation schedule. In tandem with the follow-up prospects, Ohri et al (Ohri, A., Manning, B. and Curno, 1982, p 102) explain that the contractual techniques adopted should be in line with the principle standards of the organisation. This would go a long way in supporting the attainment of the objectives.  While the principle of system darkness assumes that there can exist no systems that would be known totally, the implementing agency has the entire obligation in ensuring that it understands the system to the very core of possibility and always strive towards the same.

The building of trust amongst the participants is imperative. According to Craig et al (Craig et al 1979, p 65) it is from this trust that it becomes possible to develop a meaningful and a contextually applicable model. It is within this regard that interdependencies that are obscure seem to become slightly visible. The possibilities of confrontations among stakeholder have to be addressed through his lucid understanding. Besides, the lack of responsibility for the outcome becomes imperative and possible. In line and hand in hand the possibility of addressing this becomes almost definite and therefore supports the attainment of the objectives.

Theories have to be developed for the enhancement of change and addressing of critical issues. Subsequently, Eade (Eade 1997, p 35) assert that the simulation of the system via the use models assists in assessing the effect of the action strategies. Members of the group can also have the chance of testing their own theories and develop subsequent strategies thereof. According to Popple (Popple, 1995, p 345) this reduces the likelihood of depending so much on the overly simplistic solutions to the issues being addressed. Subsequently, some ancillary effect would be equally forthcoming resulting into the awareness of the members of the group of their responsibilities and stakes thereto.

Most importantly, the identification of the cadre of the feedback attained is paramount and critical. The feed back that is identified whether amplifying or reinforcing determines the step of action. Most importantly, this could imply motion o the requisite direction or to the opposite direction. Altogether the implementer should avoid feedback that would result in the negative vicious cycles.

Conclusion

It is evident from the foregoing discussion that community development initiatives of private organization based at this level have very critical roles in the protection of the vulnerable and the marginalized. Similarly, it has been recouped that intervention alone is not enough but also the subsequent follow-up process. However the development of requisite strategy and the implementation of the strategies are the cardinal components of community based initiatives.

The community that has to benefit from the initiative has to be dully involved if the strategy and the set objective have to be somehow achieved and substantively so. In  this cases the community has to be fully involved in the development strategies that can assist in meeting the set goals and objectives. This ensures that policy and strategies being implemented and adopted can be effective and implemented with much efficacy. Feasibility are imperative in the attainment of solid objectives; whence economic, political and social feasibility are imperatively of essence.