Emergency Operations

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

 

 

An emergency response plan is crucial for management and avoiding risks in any given city. The capacity of people living in the city has relentlessly increased meaning that the vulnerability to accidents or emergencies has shot up too. There is need to cautiously formulate strategies that respond to unexpected catastrophic events brought by human activities or natural disasters. The strategies will work to protect people, save property and lives in case tragedies occur (Baker, 2008, p.24).

The recent years have seen emergency response plans significantly improved through coordinated efforts of departments involved in emergencies as well as the government (Nudell &Antakol, 1988). This has increased funds and support making preparations swift. Institutions that work in managing emergencies are expected to be alert and ready to respond to emergencies at any time. Amongst the oldest departments involved in managements are the fire departments (Siarnicki & Gist 2010).

The fire departments are well organized and have a heart for protection of human life. Following the enacted fire code enforcements they are able to inspect and note violations which are risky (Ruckriegel, 2011, p.65).They risk their lives through the fierily hot furnace to save human lives. Whenever there are cases that pose as a threat to human life for instance open boreholes and ditches, fire fighters are there to cover up the dangerous holes and protect further threat to life. Their efforts are recognized in every city as they work day and night to ensure safety prevails. Fire departments understand all steps that need to be followed incase of an emergency so as to rescue lives (Nudell &Antakol, 1988). Bearing this in mind makes fire departments worth the opportunity of leading disaster management in the city.

The fire departments are organized in a hierarchical system making it easier to coordinate the sub departments through a chain of command system. The top authority is fire chief who heads the agency, followed by deputy chiefs, battalion chiefs who act as middle men, company chiefs and firefighters who work directly in the fire company (Marsar, 2010). Having such an organization ensures efficacy in delivery of safety services as well as coordination. Responsibilities are evenly distributed making management of crisis a shared responsibility.

Emergencies and accidents are always astonishing they endanger life and make it difficult to live normally again. The fear instilled in individuals can be traumatizing and make the recovery process challenging. However, since a department like fire has dealt with many emergencies they are able to adjust and recuperate well after the emergencies. Departments have also developed therapies that will help in adjustment after dealing with emergencies. I feel that the process of moving from normal operation would do well outside the scope of duties assigned to fire departments (Baker, 2008).It has already been dealt with by fire departments.

Deciding policy and identifying resources largely require s approval from higher authority. Since the decision made will affect the city the government and law have to give a go ahead for the formulated policies. If the policy is found unfit to deal with emergencies or resolve threats it is terminated. Good policies must put the city interests first (Siarnicki & Gist 2010, p.163). Identifying resources requires intervention from donors, activist groups and governments so as to implement suitable strategies as well as buy machines and emergency kits.

Assessing threats is a critical factor since we are dealing with handling emergencies which are a threat to life and property. The extent of threat will give a link to resources required for dealing with it, the people who will be involved amongst other crucial emergency details. Each of the mentioned factors works collaboratively to yield successful results and help manage crisis and emergencies in the city diligently.

Population in China

China is not only populous but represents 20% of the entire world population (Hao 166). Bearing this in mind we can certainly say that out of every five people inhabiting the world one is a Chinese. As massive as it sounds, it could have been worse if the one child policy was not put to effect in the year 1979 (Kane). Though it offers security and plays a trick on the theory of majority power it becomes difficult to contain a large population after some time especially if it continually keeps increasing. A large population is not only hard to govern but also challenging to sustain economically.

History of policy

Chinese increased population can be related to events that followed in 1950 on becoming People’s Republic of China (Hao). Mao Tse-tung felt that there was need for population increase as route to political and economic recovery thus urged people to have more children. There was need for protection and more labor suppliers who would come from a large population. By 1957, there was a noted population increase and Mao Zedong stated that the population at 600m should be maintained in the future (Kane). Following that the leaders started developing ways to reduce the overgrowing population. One way they would achieve this was through long term planning and strategizing means of population control. By 1958 laws on birth control got underway. The efforts were however slowed down as a result of 1959–1961 famine (Ross 70). The famine was largely as a result of the uncontained number causing strain in the economy. After recovery the government embarked on their plan to campaign against high birth rates. Some of the strategies they employed were production of contraceptives, use of IUD’s, media campaigns on family planning and low birth rates, vasectomies as well as late marriages (Kane). The latter years marked significant decline in the population of Chinese people and fertility rates.

Implementing the one child policy did not come as a shock to but greatly impacted the world as it holds an estimated quarter of the entire world population. For a start the policy was to serve as a short term goal towards building the culture of a small family and eventually decrease the population. One thing the Chinese government did not realize is that it would have adverse effects and end up having long term effects on the population.

Background

The process of reducing population growth in China started many years before the 1979 renowned program. By 1958 laws on how to reduce birth rates were already underway. After Cultural Revolution there was an urgent need to recover from the economic stagnation. This would not only place China amongst the best countries and most competitive world economies as well as increase its financial stability. About 7% of the population in the world was covered by China, most of who were youth below 30 years of age (Ross 66). It was also a time that 1950 and 60’s baby boomers were approaching their productive years. In order to recover economically, containing the population was a must. The one child policy was introduced to enhance planning for the future and make the living standards of citizens better.

It was a policy that contained laws regulating the expected family size. The family which is a core unit in the society was focused on as a factor that would enhance growth of population relentlessly. There was need to regulate childbearing tendencies, encourage late marriage and spacing of children when the exception of a second child is permitted. The one child policy though effective would not apply to the entire population in China. It would focus on the urban centers and those employed in the government. The only time that they would be allowed to have a second child is if the first child suffers disability, or the parents are the only one child in their family. The other option would be permitted to parents whose occupations are life threatening. Those living in the rural areas are allowed to have a second child incase the first child is a girl.            Being a traditional country China highly holds its cultural beliefs and the esteem of a male child is imperative. The belief that they will carry the family name makes male children more valuable. The fact that the larger populations of china inhabit the rural areas having an approximated 70% population is also another reason for policy exceptions as compared to the urban population (Kane). As you go deeper into the minority tribes however you find that a third child is allowed due to under population in the areas. The policy works effectively and those failing to adhere to it suffer heavy penalties. In some cases those who comply with the set law receive economic support, while those who disobey risk confiscation of their belongings, fines as well as losing their job opportunities.

For the policy to work out effectively measures such as compulsory use of contraceptives are expected. Alternatively those who conceive are expected to abort so as to abide to the given law. Contraceptives are used by 87% of married women, by 1980’s most of them preferred the long term use of IUD which accounted for an approximated 90% of the given contraceptives (Kane). Sterilization was also another option used. The following years did not specify a given type of favored contraceptives as the women followed the advice they received from health workers.

It is advisable however to use long term contraceptives which prevents rising rates of abortions. Reported cases of abortion occur when women fail to use suitable methods of contraception. Use of long term family planning reduces abortion cases in China as compared to other states. Statistics have reported that as compared to abortions taking place in the US china reports a lower percentage, while China has 25% US has 43% (XinQi Dong & Melissa 85). The women who go against the one child policy by conceiving unknowingly are forced to risk their lives and their babies. This happens during delivering at home so as to avoid being fined or condemned by the law. The delivery in absence of trained personnel only increases the mortality rates of maternal and neonatal cases. In 1990 a report on rural home deliveries indicated that there was a double increase in death mortality of women delivering at home as compared to those following government sanctions (Hao 170).

Population Growth

After the increased population growth the policy targeted to contain its population by 2000 at 1.2b. Following a conducted census report in the same year there were 1.27b people not too far from the target set. Further reports from higher authority indicated satisfaction in progressive results of the policy having controlled about 250-300m births successfully (XinQi Dong & Melissa 85). There was a marked fertility rate decline from 2.9 in 1979 -1.7-2004 (Hao 178). This means that the number of children born by each woman have drastically decreased. The varying urban and rural populations were significantly noted to decline. There was a 1.3 and 2.0 decline respectively (XinQi Dong & Melissa 89). This shaped up the trend demographically as the policy became a one child trend in the urban and two in the rural respectively. The policy can be credited highly for decline in fertility rates while the former years are also responsible for its prevalence too.

The Sex Ratio

There has been a noted effect on the sex ratio following the policy. The term sex ratio refers to the number of female and male children born alive. Since the one child policy was put to effect, an increased sex ratio report has bee noted. They have tremendously risen from 1.06, 1.11, 1.17, in 1979, 1988, 2001 respectively (Kane). The factor of sex ratio mostly affects rural parts of China where a second child is an option.  If the second child expected is a female the couple is allowed to terminate the pregnancy and give them another chance to get a male child in the future. In the urban centers there is sex selection making attempts to have a male child more successful. The preference for male children has led to some areas having increased numbers of male births which are a risky trend for the future. Fewer females in the societies mean that the future of the society is bleak. Gender ratio imbalance termed as bachelor army is an emerging factor where men are unable to find partners leading to prostitution and sex trafficking (Ross 68).

Future of the policy

Following the policy implementation China has to some extent achieved its set goals. The reduction of population which was a troubling thought has been achieved successfully. The policy however greatly affects the right to life and reproduction evoking several debates. The Chinese population has not stopped increasing though at a slower rate of about 10m people annually (Hanneberger). Social factors have to be employed externally to achieve the goal fully. Women who have ability to impact fertility rates should be willing to adhere to the set law. This has in the recent past brought encouraging results, as a reproductive survey indicates 57% of women preferred having one child varying in the rural and urban areas (Hanneberger).

There is need to implement new policies as well as examine the effectiveness of the past policies. Those that were effective in the past years may not be useful to China now. It has undergone massive transformations, economically and socially placing it amongst the largest economies of the entire world. Increased wealth has made families stable and the need to have more children vital. Lobbying groups and human rights activists may also be a threat to the policy since they value human life and have a regard for its preservation. Globalization and new trend are leading to shift in focus and will out do misguided policies in due time.

For the financially unstable people the policy is timely. The government has set up measures to help stop rapid spread of child birth and sustenance which is costly. To alleviate poverty they provide free medical costs and provide family planning as a remedy for controlling birth rates.

Conclusion

By mid 2008 China was home to 1.3 M people making it still the worlds most populous. Though it has slowly gone down on population growth rates, it is estimated that the next two decades will lead to its peak growth then a marked drop. Following this statistics, Kane asserts India which is the worlds second most populous to continue increasing and by 2040 hold an estimated 1.52b making it the most populous while China holds 1.45b.

 

 

Annoted bibliography

Henneberger, S. China’s One-Child Policy. 2007

iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall07/Henneberger/

Henneberger’s article on Chinese one child policy offers insight to issues crucial to the ratio of male and female children born. It keenly analyzes the future consequences of this course of action as well as the adverse effects ahead. It gives an honest opinion on how the one child policy has brought out gender controversy. He further explains how the one child policy is controversial as well as effective. The preference by tradition for the male child and how women are taking extreme measures to get rid of pregnancies so as to have another chance to give birth to male children. In regions where the second child is allowed women who discover they are expecting another female child go to the extremes of aborting the female child in an effort to have a male child. The preference for a male child who will carry the family name is high making the female child inferior. He takes a humorous approach on key family issues and increased levels of education since the implementation of the policy.

The article fails to explain the severe consequences that bias towards the female child has brought. Secondi however, expounds on the consequences clearly.

Corporate Governance and the American Corporation

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

 

 

Modern economy cannot be defined in a better way than through the key hallmarks of continuous expansion of multinational corporations. A sizable amount of business, trade and outputs are accounted for by multinational corporations. According to a research carried out by UNCTAD(1997), the sale of assets from the corporations have grown more than the world GDP, export rates and fixed capital formations. The competitive rates of multinational corporations had incredibly gone up until some problems started to emerge. The US story for instance has changed in the recent past due to economic and social factors (UNCTAD, 1997).

The US for instance has had several predicaments to deal with following failures in multinational corporate like Enron and World com (Burton, 2002). The failure has not been received politely and it has had to endure serious criticisms from external and internal sources. From the normal eye things may seem not as bad but adverse effects cut deeply causing severe effects. Further publicizing of the issue does not make things better as the business press focuses on the governance and board of the failing multinational corporate. It is well acknowledged that corporations have capacity to increase the state wealth tremendously if all the roles and functions fall in place. One advantage that the criticism is that positive changes in the administration of the corporate forcing take place leading to new policies.

            The legislation of the multinationals are adjusted to ensure that all corporations work in line with set laws. Though there have been acts set in the past to direct corporate activities one outstanding act as a result of the 2001 aftermath was the Sarbanes Oxley act (Moffit, 2010).

Sarbanes Oxley

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act is one example of legislative change brought about by the criticisms after the decline of Enron. The 2002 act (SOX), has had fundamental governance propositions for some of the companies listed in America asserts Rose (2010). Their involvement in foreign subsidiary matters is looked into by the act. All organizations registered under Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) irrespective of their localities or trade activities have to adhere to rules and regulations stipulated by the act. May be some slight adjustments may be seen in some states but compliance is inevitable. Alongside the compliance rules are sanctions for directors which work to enhance act regulations. The OECD and Swiss code of corporate governance SCCG are other national and multi national organizations formed to help in the smooth running of the corporate (Rose, 2010).

Multinationals rise

The mid 50’s were can be termed as politically stable years for the US, who had attained economic growth (Burton, 2002). The larger corporations at the time were hoping to invest more with the help of foreign Aid so as to stimulate foreign investment directly. This resulted to expansion of the MNCs leading to almost four times increased manufacturing subsidiaries. After the World War II, US set up factories to further increase their corporate trade. The results were not impressive leading to Kennedy encouraging exports and curtailing all abroad expenditures by the government (Burton, 2002).  President Washington too was not for the idea of investing in large world industries. He encouraged private investment instead.

Global economy

According to Burton (2002) the years that followed resulted to a creation of the global economy. By now many states had embraced the multinationals and were involved in trade activities. Growth in competition amongst developing multinationals for instance, increasing the costs and problems such as job reduction started to come up (Burton, 2002). New world economies are not giving the corporations an easy time either.

Role and responsibilities of corporations

Multinational corporations are businesses involved in trade activities in different states (Burton, Erich & Mark, 1994). America is home to top corporate headquarters and has capacity to transform the global perspective of trade. For many years multi corporations have helped in boosting trade and earning foreign exchange through commercial and industrial development. Close international trade brought about by the corporate has tremendously improved international relations. Following their impact and massive influence, they are viewed as major aspects economically and politically. The governments, non governmental organizations, and other groups work with multi corporations in the hope to gain future support and finances. Slight hick ups in the multinational companies would mean dire losses and economic recession. Multinational corporations have their main aim as access to market and trade promotion (Moffit, 2010).

Access to new market

To access market the multinationals follow three procedures namely:

  • Direct acquisition
  • Sequential market entry
  • Joint ventures (UNDP, 1997)

Direct acquisition which is also referred to as merger is one of the commonly used strategy to get into new market. It allows large multinationals to take advantage of their capacity through investing in foreign market. One example of the was the 1990 global automotive industries merge which placed the industry at a more competitive scale , introduced new market as well as increased customer response rates (Rose, 2007).

Multinational corporations use sequential market entry to market through establishing niche markets which are linked to mother companies when operating in a new region or country. Sony corporation for instance which is a Japanese multinational used this strategy to get into the US market by first establishing its base in San Diego with a small television. The years that followed had no public signs of progression while Japan was secretly working to create and tactfully spread its magnetic tapes, in 1974 to various cities. This case portrays a growing multinational which used its initial product to access a larger market for the future inventions it created (Burton, Erich & Mark, 1994).

Creating joint ventures is also another way that corporations gain access to markets. This is a method that suggests two companies come together. In most cases one corporation normally has access to the market making it easier to help the upcoming corporate. This system has been prevalent in communist states. Its partners retain autonomy and rule. One disadvantage of this market entry is that one of the partners may turn out to be formidable competitors who will not help the new multinational corporate maximize their potential.

Concerns of multinational corporations

While Multinational corporations have played a great role in the modern economy they are faced with serious flaws in how they run activities. There is need to assess their motives following with regard to factors such as labor, policy and relations which contribute to the overall success of multinationals. Since they work for the well being of the society have they fully served the community?

Labor is a term that refers to availability of manpower so as to perform duties assigned. Without labor the multinational corporations cannot provide goods and services to suit needs. The labor organizations are concerned about multinational corporations in developed countries. The corporations have been noted to move their jobs into developing countries where they can access cheap or free labor (Grant, 2010). Labor organizations based in developing countries also undergo the uncomfortable ordeal trying to negotiate with the corporations over the same issue. Offshore outsourcing is another challenge that developing countries have to deal with as a result of multinational corporate. They use cheap foreign labor and domestic goods then sell them back to developing countries at high rates (Bucheli &Aguilera, 2010, p.351). This is a form of exploitation, which harms the poor states.

The multinationals have had negative effects on the society through poor relations causing their activities to impact less. They exploit the employees, local environment and society. It lacks association with the community who promote its welfare. Socially multinationals are doing badly and are not interactive leaving the community which promotes them feeling exploited.

Policy implies set rules and principles that govern institutions. The corporations have their own policies most of the time. This does not put them above the set government laws. The governments have their hands tied as a result of the growing corporations. They lack any control on the corporate, jurisdictional differences amongst the corporate and states are proving to be tricky too. Non tariff barriers which the government condemns are another issue arising in the corporate world. Multinational corporations manipulate political power through their economic status (Bucheli &Aguilera, 2010, p.351). As a result they have become a point of public influence which highly contributes to political running of states. The freedom they have is excess and can cause harm if not regulated by policies.

Most corporate are independent and carry out their transactions at freewill. Advanced technology has also been another issue that has led to independence of corporate. Multinationals no longer have their headquarters in wealthy nations. Many states own multinational corporate making it impossible to limit the spread of multinationals anywhere.

Corporate management, leadership and responsibility

Corporate leadership and management play a major role in multicultural corporations. Top authority is always blamed when things go wrong. The corporate governance supports the multinationals in funding and gaining access to new markets through international relations. Strategic management is another role played by the corporate governance. This ensures that the right strategy is established and works for the benefit of multinationals (Grant, 2010).

Shareholders and Stakeholders

Corporations have a duty to serve citizens in a way that they are comfortable. Share holder interests get measured through returns of the economy. A stakeholder is a defined as any individual involved in activities of the corporation. They include the employees who work for the success of the corporate, suppliers, customers, the society and community as a whole. For the corporation to work and achieve success with their stakeholders there are set laws and regulations that govern them. Corporations define their rules, customs and practices to enhance business success (Rose, 2007).The economic and long term success of the corporate highly depends on the stakeholders. As a result they are crucial in the decision making and matters affecting the corporation. Rose (2007) asserts that stakeholder interests should be considered and met by the corporation.

Multinational corporations have a future in the digital era. However they have to deal with the concerns that the community is raising and avoid exploiting developing countries that are also in the process of developing multinational corporations.

Juvenile Delinquency

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

 

 

The rate of juvenile delinquency has in the recent past tremendously increased recording startling figures (Arabella, p.671). This has forced immediate law and justice intervention.  Juveniles who are described as minors or children, having not yet attained the legal age of an adult, are a posing threat to the future security of the state. Delinquent acts slowly graduate to serious crimes in the future years meaning that there are minimal or no chances of juvenile delinquents recovering from the vices. They may instead become professional criminals. Various factors are attributed to the rising behavior of delinquents. Arabella (2002, p.674) in her research claims that most juvenile delinquents dropped out of school, she also attributes the behavior to low IQ levels, antisocial behavior, family criminal records and difficult parental rearing practices (Arabella, 2002). Violent uprisings and rebelling against authority as a result of political instability have contributed to rise in delinquent criminal indulgence in various parts of the world .The media which highly publicizes criminal activity has also been mentioned amongst the top factors leading to juvenile delinquency (Arabella, 2002, p.672).

Delinquent trends vary from one state to another due to social factors which are highly attributed to criminal behavior. In Europe and Mexico for instance the teens and gangs are deviant and indulge in law breaking recklessly. They indulge in violence, internet, global prostitution and illicit drug abuse (Siegel &Welsh, 2009, p.576).  Violence which is top on the list has caused harm in Western Europe living the society fearful of the future the teen are making. One case reported a 19 year old male who killed two of his fellow students, 14 teachers and a police officer ranking the crime as the second worst in German history since World War II (Siegel & Welsh, 2002, p.577). In America there have been reports on students who possess ammunitions and kill each other in recent years. School shootings are also not unusual, since teenagers can possess guns prevalence in juvenile delinquency has risen. Juvenile delinquency however is a vice that the society needs to address keenly and make sure that it is eradicated. It is an irresponsible trend taken by young people who have capacity to be productive as they are still young. Being delinquent is harmful and promises no hope for the society, it is imperative to strategize means that will help curb the vices before they progress and get out of hand.

Probation

Probation is defined as a process of confinement or seclusion from the normal life in order to instill discipline or modify ones behavior. When an individual is on probation their rights are restricted since they pose as a threat to the society. The state which stipulates the regulations to be followed has a responsibility to deal with all law offenders including delinquents. Juvenile delinquents for instance require special behavior correction which can only take place if probation is offered. Probation is highly useful as it works in favor of the society and the delinquent. It is a type of treatment offered to delinquents without imprisonment and legal dispositions. The juvenile justice system offers probation as the most suitable method of treatment.

It normally is an arrangement system where individuals are given a suspended sentence for an indefinite period of time depending on jurisdiction statutes. The law can mandate it or the decision can be left to the court .This in most cases occurs if the offence committed is minor and has no major implications. It further clarifies that the individual has to maintain stipulated laws under supervision. The delinquent though not confined is constantly under the probation officers eye. The probation officer has a right to discharge delinquents who gradually prove to be adjusting and modifying their behavior through treatment. Some of the requirements that the delinquent should meet are ability to moderately live, be financially responsible as well as have a productive life. Failing to meet the requirements stipulates that the individual is put on probation in an institution. Alternatively methods to avoid being under an institution are implemented for instance they are placed under custody of a stable family also referred to as foster care (Juvenile probation office, 2009).

The use of electronic monitoring is a technology whereby juvenile delinquents are under observation from authority making it easy to track their movements and behavior while on probation. It is a workable local alternative and helps in monitoring delinquents through cheaper means.  Most professionals opt for this alternative as it decreases public safety thereby minimizing delinquency (Bilchik, 1997). It benefits the government too since placement costs are reduced greatly. It is advantageous as the local authority can afford it and us it to serve the communal purposes of eradicating criminal behavior. Some local jurisdictions have noted a tremendous decline in the amount they spent on the electronic monitoring project as compared to officer placement costs. There may be more expansions on electronic monitoring as it has adverse benefits.

Restorative justice seeks to involve participation by victims and consensus; the individuals are involved in face to face dialogues in order to resolve the conflict. It is a way of restoring the lost trust and healing. It seeks to avoid repetition of similar crime by the delinquent. It works well if the offences involved are minor and battery offences. Restorative justice seeks direct accountability through making the delinquent face his actions. A delinquent gets to see the consequences of their behavior and how it has hurt other people, they are further expected to explain why they indulged in the ill vice and steps they will take to repair the damage done. Finally the main and sole purpose is reconciling the victim and offender so as to strengthen the society a large and promote harmonious living (Morris& Maxwell, 1988, p.5-6).

Restitution as an alternative method is effective in getting rid of delinquent behavior. There was a noted increase in the number of people who completed restitution as a probation program (Siegel & Welsh, 2002, p.543). However it does not entirely help in solving the crisis that delinquency brings. Restitution orders are not standardized making it impossible to give fair and equal treatment to delinquents. They are also costly and monetary restitutions cannot be accessed by all individuals for instance those unemployed. Probation officers feel threatened too, the program as threatens their authority and organizational autonomy (Siegel & Welsh, 2002, p.543).

Treatment options

In an effort to help reduce juvenile delinquency there has been creation centers of rehabilitation build to ensure that juveniles serve sentences as per the crime committed and come out as law abiding citizens. It is very necessary to offer correctional treatment for delinquents so as to avoid further spread of the vice as well as deter other delinquents from following suit.  Two major divisions have been set apart to help in correcting delinquent behavior; community and institutional treatment (Siegel &Welsh, 2009, p.530).While community treatment is one that offers care and protections to juveniles institutional treatment is a federal correctional institution. Some of the roles that community treatment plays are probation, counseling, restitution amongst others.  Community treatment is offered in private institutions for instance rehabilitation schools, boarding schools, care homes and centers. For those who are nonresidents the treatment is done at their homes. They are expected to follow the rules stated and also be keen on what is instructed. Vocational counseling is organized at given times when the individuals receive counseling in an aid to modify their attitudes and behavior eventually.

Institutional treatment is stricter as it deals with the state law directly. The delinquent is restricted of any freedom of movement and is under a watchful eye throughout. There are locked exits and security fences to ensure that the individual is fully confined.  Juvenile institutions serve the purpose of behavior correction as they focus on a specific crime and aim to rectify the vice. For proper coordination of the process of correcting behavior institutional treatment offers reception centers which help in screening them so as to identify where they fall suitably. Other facilities which are specialized assign where individuals who have been badly affected by substance abuse get help from. This are called specialized centers. Some delinquents need long term training and this happens in facilities like vocational centers, training schools and reformatories which offer treatment suitably. Other institutions that offer long term treatment s are forestry and boot camps (Mcgloin, 2009).

Boot camps emphasize on physical exercises and activities as a form of rectifying ill vices from the delinquents, forestry camps aims at modifying behavior through long term residential care (Siegel &Welsh, 2009, p. 530). The boot camps aim at developing toughness and learn social skills in individuals. If the delinquents are no longer in their comfort zone they will learn how to deal with future challenges and coping rather than indulging in criminal activities. Though there is use of minimal therapy to correct offending behavior, boot camps have helped in creating  rapport between the staff and juveniles, environmental  positive attitudes and relieving stress factors through physical exercises (Bilchik, 1997).

Institutional treatment thus offers treatment under institutions or facilities specially designed for purposes of treatment and behavior rectification through physical and psychological activities.

Institutionalization

Most juvenile delinquents are held in public or sometimes private custody. Public custodies have been set up to confine them and help in behavior modification. In a public setting the delinquents stay together regardless of the offence committed. Between years 91-03 there was an increase in the number of juvenile delinquent in custody (Siegel &Welsh, 2009, p. 549) meaning there had to be expansion of public facilities so as to contain them. All in all the number of delinquents varies in states and whereas one state has more centers for the other may have fewer depending on the crime rates. The institutions vary in size and quality too; some have large dormitories to act as correctional institutions while others are fully equipped with all the modern requirements with all correctional facilities such as dining halls, gyms, library and auditoriums (Murray, 2010).

In most cases when a juvenile is institutionalized they stay away from home for 3-4 months in a private or public institution ((Morris& Maxwell, 1988, p.5-6). The younger delinquents are taken in by private institutions while those ranging from 18-21 years go to public institutions (Arabella, 2002, p.691). Most juveniles are normally under the influence of drug or substance abuse which has long term effects on them and accelerates them to committing crimes. As a result of drug abuse most of them suffer mental and emotional instability making it crucial to be rehabilitated. It has however been noted that most of the delinquents who are admitted in the institutions normally have problems adjusting to the new changes making them worse and rebellious when expected to get involved in the programs asserts Bilchik (1997).  Behavior modification is not usually an easy process as the delinquents have to adjust to a change in rules and behavior so as to be disciplined.

Relationships between juvenile delinquents vary as individuals end up finding friends who walk with them through the period.

Male inmates are more likely to bond with those who are from their own racial or ethnical backgrounds. This is done to feel secure and also exploit those who do not belong to their group. Peer influence is a common factor in the inmates. Most of them join gang groups to get protection from harassment by older or the more popular gang of inmates (Arabella, 2002). They normally have intentions to attack or manipulate staff so as to get better services while locked behind bars.

Female inmates on the other hand do not get involved in peer pressure often. The restrictions on their institutions are tougher making exploitation or harassment minimal between inmates. Though there has been a noted increase in the number of female inmate’s inmate, there are lesser rehabilitation activities in the female centers as compared to the male ones. The girls are however more likely to be incarcerated for status offences as compared to the male inmates. They lack social skills and suffer low self esteem issues like the male inmates (Ritter, 2010).

Child Psychology

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

 

 

Child psychology is the study of mental, social and emotional growth of a child. Majorly it is checking on mind behavior.  It keeps a check on emotional changes, social developments, mental abilities and growth as well as the child’s physical growth. Child psychology is from infantry to adolescence. Therefore, one can say that child psychology is also learning about the various changes and development of a child’s mind. People perceive that children as beings that are not fully in a position to reason as they do or learn things, well that is not the case according to (Alison, 2010, p.76-81) Children are in a position to learn and analyze different situation in their development stages. Development is not only restricted to the factors within but also the factors without a given individual. For instance, the environment that one lives in terms of culture and the relationships.

The social aspect of it entails the relationship between peers and the mature adults. This automatically affects how the child will learn, interpret issues as well as develop. A child will also adapt to the given cultural values subject to him.

Psychology is majorly learned other than inherited. A child adapts and takes up characteristics that he/she is exposed to. For instance if  a child watches his/ her mother cry a lot during any form of distress the child automatically adapts to that as a way of releasing emotional distress. One may easily mistake this for inheritance but the child only adapted to what he/she has mostly been exposed to. Experiences also considerably add up to a child’s psychology. If the child is often subjected to bad experiences, he is bound to view the world in a negative dimension.

Based on my personal personality, I believe that the composition of my personality for instance I have a big heart, I wouldn’t say I inherited this but rather say I simply followed after  my mother. I have watched her have a big heart towards people and have learnt that as the right way to treat people. Sometimes I get hyper, something I learnt and adapted to as my father most of the times resulted to being hyper if offended. In all the two examples, I learn that most of the times it is the situations that we are exposed to that moulds our character hence our personality.

Medical tests are done further to provide valuable information about ones health status. A genetics test is slightly different from other test in that it does not involve an individual only but also involves a chain of individuals in that it is more of family and blood related issues. Family issues are sensitive and there fore when a genetic state is being done the information got after results are taken should be handled with great care to avoid issues of abuse of the information. For instance if a doctor ends up exposing the results to quarters not involved then it becomes misuse also using those results for other purposes other than the main reasons for undertaking the test then it becomes abuse. Another type of abuse of genetics information is the stigmatization of a particular group or family based on their genes. To avoid such cases then there should be measures, codes and ethics put in place to govern the whole issue of genetic tests and therefore anyone who is found using genetic test information in an relevant manner is then found to have breached or made an offense hence, strict measures are taken to deal with the individual.

 

 

Genetics test is a test undertaken to identify genes, various changes in the genes and the various development in the same. When one decides to undertake a gene test there are several factors that one may one want to consider. For instance reason as to why they are settling for a gene test, and how are they ready for the results of that particular test and preferably how are they planning to manage or handle the outcome of the gene test results if they are positive or negative as per the results.

United continental merging.

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

 

 

United airlines completed its merger with continental airlines in October 2010 rendering it the largest airline in the continent Moreno, (2010). The two airlines are to operate separately until they obtain a single operating certificate, which is issued by the federal aviation administration. The airline combined will operate under the name-united airlines. As they wait for finalization of their deals, they shall not add on new routes until there is a gain in strength by the economy. Merging may sometimes lead to bankruptcy; there have been cases of bankruptcies and reorganizations leading to stopping of flying of the same. Continental has undergone a bankruptcy organization a few years back and managed to come out strong enough to get a warrant on merging as pointed out by congressional digest (2001).

Merging is the act of joining two or more to form one. Merging facilitates for

Strengthening of the parties involved. That is to say, when companies come together they are able to form one unit, which is stronger. The element of being stronger helps them to effectively compete with their competitors and not face the risk of being outdone, which would lead to poor returns. If they get less return, they may be forced to run on debt which most of the time will lead to bankruptcy or even forced into total shut down of the company as it may only realize losses. It might somehow survive but o very strained means and this could also lead to forcing the management to lay off some employees hence rendering them jobless. Airlines have been reported to seek merging with other airlines to improve on their profits as well as financial sustainability Lori (2010). However, it is important to weight this against challenges and cost of operations involved according to GAO reports, (2010). As well as merging helps in cutting down on costs such as expenses. Resources are shared equally leading to reduced costs, otherwise a company if running on its own is forced to buy its own resources rendering such an activity very expensive and sometimes even not necessary. For instance when a company merges they are able to utilize one website, have common adverts hence, reduced advertising cost, a common employee database but sometimes that is not the case according to Moreno (2010), dis-unity of employees to form a common union, does not help save any costs as expected by the mergers. Operating businesses has proved difficult and challenging over the years due cost factors but with ideas such as merging, this has been no longer a major problem. Merging helps boost potential as the local firms are highly promoted and therefore no chances of having potential wasted.

Merging further facilitates for companies to be able to acquire new market shares, maintain their market share. However, this has its own disadvantage.  Getting a bigger share might mean no market share or market share enough to sustain the local firms. Another factor is cutting down on competition, this is so in that if they were running as separate entities they would be competing against each other but if they merge and become one they can only compete against other competitors but not amongst themselves. According to Reed (2010), a merge between American and us airways theoretically seems as the best way to compete with other giant competitors.

Jayetta (2008), merging facilitates for growth as the merged company’s are able to minimize cost hence increase in revenue leading to rise in profitability ratios. This is in turn used for the growth of the company. Merging is a very efficient way of helping firms adapt to changes and working towards overcoming challenges and they emerge victorious. Merging leads to monopoly or market dominance at times hence, a company is able to enjoy the benefits of monopoly. For instance, they get to dictate fare rates, they can easily do away with activities that drain their resources such as provision of food in the planes. However, if one is not careful monopoly might lead to factors such as compromising customers’ value James (2009). Companies should therefore, seek to have market colony other than monopolization. Merging gives an added advantage to the hosting countries, as the prices of products are low and the product and services are locally and readily available. There is also job creation hence curbing the problem of unemployment.

The united continental merge is set to harmonize their coach products by having back seats increased and seats from the continental planes removed to give them uniformity. Generated revenue by elite frequent fliers who are mostly the occupants of those seats plus revenue from fliers paying for the privilege outweighs theoretical revenue loss from having fewer seats on the given planes besides the passengers are much more satisfied with the experience they get during their travel as people appreciate more space. Extending economy plus, which is five inches legroom, having several rows of seat in the coach cabin on the front side. More than 850 planes will have the product by the end of year 2012.

United and continental are working towards uniformity of their products, brands, frequent flier plans and a harmonized website. Having a separate or un-harmonized products and services as well as un- harmonized management, it will lead to a very complex structure bound to have a lot of miss understanding as asserted by the Canadian travel press (2010). This is very dangerous as it leads to poor production as well as enemity, which should have not been there in the first place. It may also give a bad image of the company and may lead to losing trust of their hard gained clients or customers. It will also lead to lack of confidence with the investors Unnikrishnan (2010). After finalizing the merger between united airlines and continental airlines, they started trading their stock but this may fail to fulfill its purpose if there is no unity. Finally, if there is no hope of saving the situations, it may lead to splitting and it might prove very hard to pick up from the already broken pieces. They shall eventually work on the maintenance, fleets, training the staff involved and the operations standardization. An interim advertising campaign was set to kick off by the united airlines and continental lines. Their website is to be given a new look, melding the united name with continental well-known globe. The new advertisement campaign will make good use of billboards as well as magazines in the carrier’s hemisphere. Later it is to venture in the use of newspapers and magazines, which are to be supplied in the hub markets that serve the two airlines with strong emphasis placed on New York area, which has proved to be a very competitive market. A new signage will be launched by the united carrier at stadiums where they sponsor major baseball league teams and later the signage will appear on big airports. The particular new logo and look would appear having a clear connection with the groups sponsored by the carrier, and that includes professional golfers association and the Oscar academy awards as stated by Reed, (2010).

31 mainline jetliners along with 155 regional aircrafts flying on behalf of the company and 118 continental mainline planes have been renamed. The new united is the world’s largest airline by traffic and is based in Chicago. The new advertisements will not have a tagline but will highlight on the airlines superior route network, guaranteed low fares , variety of product attributes and definitely a new look. Getting rid of the economy plus, could prove to be very unpopular as well as a big blow to travelers who have the ability to buy access to planes with bigger room seats. In 1999 united begun a program to differentiate itself from its potential competitors. In 2000, the American started a similar program though in 2005 they dismissed the program claiming that adding back seats and reducing the legroom had an increase of $100 million as revenue per year.

500 jobs will be eliminated by the merging of the continental and the united airlines especially considering the fact that it shall be moving its headquarters from Texas City to Chicago.500 hundred is roughly estimated to be 17% of 3000 estimate, part of the management and employees in the administration in Houston. It was agreed before the merger of the two companies to have the relocation of the headquarters to Chicago. A careful process was being worked on to help establish a standard organizational structure and department location. Access to outplacement services, subsidized health benefits, severance and travel pass privileges will be granted to those who lose their jobs.

Theorizing Health Communication

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

The author, Winnickoff, et al (2009), wanted to establish beliefs about the health effects of third hand smoke and home smoking bans, there was the sure intent to asses the health beliefs of adults on the issue of exposing children to third hand smoke, whether smokers and non-smokers have different views on the same. How does cigarette smoking affect people and mostly children? The author addressed issues such as the types of smoke to be able to fully understand and come up with concrete facts. There are different types of smoking, which are second hand smoking and third hand smoking.

There is no form of exposure that could label as safe. All levels of exposure have their own effects. States have then been compelled to form laws that govern cigarette smoking to protect other people who might be easily exposed to such environments. For instance, people who work in bars, workplaces and the like. Second hand smoking has been found to have adversely affect adults and causing a high rate of death. The third hand smoking has been found to affect the health of young children.
According to Winnickoff, et al (2009), beliefs about the effects of thirdhand smoking on health are independently connected with total restriction of smoking at home. It was clear that thirdhand smoking is a health hazard to young children and is an important fact to consider as a reason enough to push for bans on smoking at home. The health information on thirdhand smoke contamination can easily be placed in current tobacco campaigns, programs as well as clinical practices.
Types of cigarette smoke and their effects to the people exposed to them is also an important factor to understand to be able to find best ways of alienating the same and keeping on the low effects caused by the same. For instance if one has to smoke at home he should then ensure that the fans are on , windows are open or smoke from somewhere open and far from the house and wait until that smell of smoke is over.
How well are people exposed to facts concerning cigarette smoke and their effects? Healthcare (2008).  How do beliefs vary from different groups, what do they think about cigarette smoke and how willing are they to adapt to a healthier way of living was some of the important factors that the author had in mind.
If people are able to follow policies stipulated concerning cigarette smoke the lives of people will be in less danger. People will be in a position to avoid sicknesses arising from such smoke for instance, lung cancer or chest problems. The lives of children and their health will also be safe, as they will no longer be exposed to harmful smoke. People at work will also feel respected in that they will not be forced to inhale the smoke that comes from smokers especially from bars. There are obvious dangers if people literally ignore the obvious negatives of smoking. The number of death rates will increase as well as poor health conditions caused by cigarette smoke could be highly realized.
There was an effort to find out the major beliefs on the effect of third hand smoke to children, in that connection, there were varying differences between adult. Some of them felt that the third hand smoke affected children whereas others thought the secondhand smoke affected children. According to the author, it was arrived at that, third hand smoke was independently associated with rules prohibiting home smoking whereas second hand smoking was not independently connected to rules prohibiting smoking at home or in vehicle.

Patriarchal Religions

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

  Religion is belief in God in a particular manner, which is particularly based on Gods will, what were His intentions when He created us, the universe? Religion involves a lot of spiritualism, observing various beliefs and commands, which are more like a behavior code that humans should follow as a sign of obedience to God or rather, follow given laws as stipulated by the word of God. The laws are identified as sharia in Islam, Halakhah in Judaism and the canon law in Christianity. Patriarchal simply means having a male dominant environment or rather male biasness. That means in the case of patriarchal religions the males dominate giving them the top seats. Obligating them to make major decisions and fully be in charge. It is very evident especially in the three religions that are Christianity, Judaism and Islam. The general overseers’ positions are given to male. The Christian religion is trying to embrace women and placing them as leaders though not all denominations approve the same

For instance the Roman Catholic who have their overall general as the Pope. They have literally refused to have women into priesthood the best they can do is have them as sisters or nuns. Judaism is also trying to incorporate female leaders but at a very slow pace. The Muslims do not allow their female counterparts into the mosque during their worship days.      The patriarchal religions can also be refereed to as Abrahamic religions. They differ as well as resemble one another in one way or the other. According to Eden (2006), Judaism refers itself as the religion of the offspring of Jacob the founder being Abraham or Moses. As for Christianity, it started as a section of Judaism, which was called Jewish Christianity, later it became a separate religion after differing on some beliefs its founder being Jesus. Islam was founded by Muhammad based on teachings of the Quran. The Christians use the bible, which also has the New Testament whereas the Jews use the bible without the New Testament and the Islam use the quran.

The three religions have some common factors such as monotheism, which is, to believe in one God. They believe in one God though they refer to Him using different names. All the same, Christianity differs slightly in that they believe in one God yes but they also believe in the holy trinity, which entails God the father, God the son, God the Holy Spirit. That is to say, God in three.

The Abrahamic religions also believe in one eternal God maker of heaven and earth who also functions as the supreme ruler. They believe that He gives His divine will through His holy word, which He was able to have it written by making use of prophets. He gave them visions as well as spoke to them giving them the ability to write the same. Also that there shall be a judgment day that will define where one will spend his eternity based on his conduct here on earth. People shall go either to heaven or to hell, heaven being for those who obeyed His commands whereas hell will be for those who disobeyed Him. The religions also resemble in that they believe in the word of God and that they have to make choices in life between good and evil concerning obeying God. There is also the story of creation to resurrection and finally judgment. There also were town that were very symbolic to the three religions. For instance, Jerusalem is a holy city for the Judaism believers, as for the Christians it was where Jesus was brought for dedication. In the Islam perspective, it was the city of David and Christ. They also have festivals that are also part of their religion. The religions also have similarities when it comes to issues pertaining to food. Judaism and Islam have very strict measures when it comes to the mater of food. The Christians also have some restrictions such as they are not allowed to eat blood but as compared to the other two Christianity is a bit loose on issues concerning food.

Worship is showing devotion, acknowledgment, praising and serving God. The Patriarchal Religions worship God in various ways. For instance, they worship God through their giving’s. Whereby they give offerings, tithe and first fruits of their produce. They also observe the Sabbath day, which is a day that is kept as a rest and worship day. The only difference is that the days differ. For instance, Christians have Sunday as their Sabbath day, Jews have Saturday and the Muslims have Friday as their Sabbath day. However, the Muslims do not refer to the Sabbath day as a rest day but rather a special worship day. They do not believe that God got tired after creation. They also have fasting periods to help intensify their talk and relationship with God. They all pray to God. Among the differences in worship are they pray to God but the Christians pray using the holy trinity whereas Judaism and Islam pray to a singular God as per Rolfe (2004). Their Sabbath day is not a common day they differ.  The clergy in all the three religions differ in names. For instance, the Muslims refer to their clergy as Imams, the Jews call them Rabbi while Christians call them Bishops, minister, priests or pastors. The Muslims and Christians believe that Jesus died by crucifixion but the Jews believe Jesus did not die but rather ascended to heaven during cruxification.only Christians believe that Jesus resurrected but the latter do not believe so. The three religions work hard to spread the good news through various ways. Christianity has managed to have the largest number of followers followed by Islam then Judaism. Judaism encourages conversion but does not have an active use of missionaries as Christians do. All the same, one is able to convert and become a Jew if he follows a given set of laws that he will be subject to. All the same, they put emphasis on being righteous.  , as they prefer a good person who is not a Jew other than a Jew who is labeled as being bad for the fact that he is not righteous. Christians put a lot of emphasis on missionary works so that they convert as many as possible in the whole world. Many churches, mosques and synagogues are being established as worship centers hence people have easy access of such centers. They are also using technology such as computer or telecast, whereby they have programs based on their religion, which preaches or teaches the word of God, discussions on that particular religion, they also come up with outreach programs such as open-air teachings. Giving out of written articles that emphasize on those religions. Articles such as magazines. In addition, establishing projects such as schools, digging of bore holes as an initiative to assist the society. This works as a good reminder to the society of a given religion. The religions are also taught in schools as part of the curriculum. The students are exposed to such religion study and are tested on the same. All the same, the students are only subject to take a religion study that he or she is part of. For instance if the student is a Christian the student will only take Christian religious education and not Islam or Judaism Sometimes due to differences disharmony has risen but if they are to spread the good news, they have to beat their differences as said by McClatchy, (2011).

Living in a Hazardous Environment

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or related subject.

8

The environment is a focal point for human existence. It becomes unsafe and inhabitable when we indulge in activities that are not Eco-friendly. As a result of continuous neglect of the environment pollution, desertification, soil erosion, famine and drought come up making human life unbearable (Smith & Petley, 2007). Besides human activity, the environment can become a hazardous place to be due to natural factors. Natural disasters like floods, landslides, hurricanes and tornadoes cannot be explained. There is a big hazard to the environment whenever natural calamities occur. Property destruction and massive loss of lives occurs following natural calamities. Smith and Petley (2007) in their book Environmental Hazards describe how land slides occur; mechanics involved, hazard and assess the risk.

Landslides are natural environmental hazards adversely affecting the environment and human life. Apart from having increased in the recent years, landslides cause loss of lives and property destruction. Given that developing countries lack financial stability, landslides have a negative impact on them as compared to developed ones. There is lack of governmental intervention to look into landslides and offer financial support on victims. Lack of strategies for future calamities are rarely available making the hazard worse. Recovery measures for those affected by landslides don’t exist making recovery impossible in some cases. We will attempt to look at land slides as environmental hazards, their effects and preventive measures.
Synthesis of 20 journal articles about the hazard

Causes of landslides

Karsli,F. Atasoy,M. Yalcin, A.& Reis, S. (2009). Effects of land-use changes on landslides in a     landslide-prone area (Ardesen, Rize, NE Turkey), Environmental Monitoring and   Assessment. Dordrecht: Sep 2009. Vol. 156, Iss. 1-4; pg. 241, http://proquest.umi.com

 

In their book Karsli, Atasoy, Yalcin, & Reis discuss the major causes of landslides as lithology, heavy rainfall, slope gradient and aspect, terrain roughness and vegetation cover. The book carries us through a research conducted in The North Eastern Turkey, Ardesen black region which has had increased number of landslides. They also explain how scientists use photogrammetric skills to detect and predetermine occurrence of a landslide. Geographical Information System (GIS) has also been explained as an applicable tool to detect landslides in the mountainous region of Turkey. This book is useful in addressing landslides occurrence in regions that are hilly and offering preventive measures. The authors have skillfully addressed crucial issues and specifically solve the hazard of landslides in NE Turkey to some extent.

Effects

Rautela, P. & Pande, R. (2005). Implications of ignoring the old disaster management plans:         Lessons learnt from the Amparav tragedy of 23 September 2004 in the Nainital district of            Uttaranchal (India). Disaster Prevention and Management. Bradford: 2005. Vol. 14, Iss. http://proquest.umi.com

The article by Rautela and Pande discusses how landslide has massive negative impacts on those who fall victim. It is an article that analyzes an Indian, Amparav case study recorded after the 2004 landslide. I find the article interesting because it reaches out to a specific group of people who have gone through the environmental hazard and aims to establish ways of dealing with a similar case in the future. It focuses on creating awareness of hazard prone regions so as to prepare those who face the risk of landslides later on. Documenting disaster solving strategies is proposed as one of the ways of dealing with future incidences.

Banker, P. (2011).Mudslide kills 3 girls, Lahore: Feb 13, 2011.http://proquest.umi.com

The severity of landslide and mudslide can be explained by the death rates reported annually following this hazard. The above article drew my attention as it sites how three young girls fro one family lost their lives as a result of a mudslide in Khapro tehsil of Mirpur Khas. This is just one of the many reported cases not to mention those that go unreported making the hazard a life threatening issue of concern.

Pokhrel, D.  Bhandari, S. & Viraraghavan, T.(2009). Natural hazards and environmental   implications in Nepal. Disaster Prevention and Management. Bradford: 2009. Vol. 18,      Iss. 5; p. 478, http://proquest.umi.com

Addressing the implications of a natural hazard is not an easy task. Pokhrel and Bandhari address issues that cause landslides and give evidenced details on the exact implications that landslides have had on Nepal inhabitants. The journal intrigues me as they explain that natural calamities claim a total of 1063 lives annually. Apart from landslides, earthquakes are prevalent in Nepal. Some of the reasons given are its rugged topography, varied climatic conditions, lying in an active tectonic zone as well as its geological complexity. These factors are relevant in the study of other regions that are similarly affected by landslides.

Business North Carolina, (2010).Landslide spooks foes of those so inclined, Apr2010, Vol. 30        Issue 4, p48-    48, 2/3p, http://www.ebscohost.com

The report is useful as it explains how landslides cause critical damage and loss of lives. It starts by narrating how a previous landslide took five lives in amusement park. Artificial slope act is a plan by top officials in North Carolina to reduce the dangers attached to constructing on steeply sloped regions at the ghost town. Poor engineered projects will be minimized to avoid collapsing in the future and destruction. The article reveals government commitment to protect citizens by curbing future incidents.

Vorenberg, S.(2011). West Hills landslide damage in Multnomah County a challenge to fix

            Daily Journal of Commerce (Portland, OR) 01/31/2011 Regional Business News ,             http://www.ebscohost.com

The article is an interesting review of the effects of landslide. It describes how the workers are stranded and unable to go to work as a result of the landslide leaving road sections closed. Whenever landslides take place there are damages that need to be fixed making the adjustment cumbersome as they distort the norm of life.

Science News. When Mountains Fall, Washington: Aug 29, 1992, Vol. 142, Iss. 9; pg. 136, 3 pgs             http://proquest.umi.com

This article makes us look at further effects of landslides. It covers the story of how mountains slide infrequently harming the population.

Brown, J. (2001).Researchers confirm link between landslides and soil porosity, Civil        Engineering. New York: Feb 2001, Vol. 71, Iss. 2; pg. 18, http://proquest.umi.com

The journal is an interesting review of recent researches conducted and how they indicate landslide behavior to be sensitive to any small variations of soil. It offers focus on results from research making it a valid source.

Detecting landslides

Lee, S. & Choi, J. (2004). Landslide susceptibility mapping using GIS and the weight-of  evidence model. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Dec2004, Vol. 18 Issue 8, p789-814, 26p; http://www.ebscohost.com

Is an interesting book that explains how GIS is used for information and predetermining land slide. It has been effective in China and Korea. It thus helps in making urban planning possible.

Olsen, M. & Stuedlein, A. (2010). Discussion of ‘Use of terrestrial laser scanning f characterization of retrogressive landslides in sensitive clay and rotational landslides in          river banks’. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Oct, Vol. 47 Issue 10, p1164-1168, 4p. http://www.ebscohost.com

Terrestrial laser scanning cannot be explained in a better way than what Olsen and Stuedlen have done in their journal of retrogressive landslides in sensitive clay. This journal lets the reader know of its purpose as a journal which provides great versatility before and after the landslide. The unique factor in using TLS is its role in assessing emergencies especially in sensitive clay locations. The case studies from Canada offer insight into appropriateness of using TLS for monitoring purposes in places like river banks and bed shores. TLS is one of the newest discoveries which have proved to be relevant in geomorphologic studies.

Rosin, P. & Hervás, J. (2005). Remote sensing image thresholding methods for determining          landslide activity. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 3/20/2005, Vol. 26 Issue 6,           p1075- http://ebscohost.umi.com

The international journal is relevant in solving issues related to landslides through using the remote sensing technology. The journal lengthily covers detection and monitoring of landslides and mitigates plans especially in hilly areas. It uses updated methods in detection making it possible to alleviate damage and destruction.

Hazard management

Ashish K. (2010).Landslide management: concept and philosophy, Disaster Prevention and          Management. Bradford: 2010. Vol. 19, Iss. 1; pg. 119, http://proquest.umi.com.

Ashish in his journal comprehensively covers the causes of landslide and how to manage them as natural disaster. He starts by explaining how the earth is a dynamic sphere with endogenetic forces which keep getting deformed as the force of gravity continually tries to reduce them, in a cycle that results to landslides. His journal addresses the severe effects that landslides have on human life and property destruction. One reason that this journal captures my attention is how he addresses the effects as setbacks to any human development thereby implementing means of managing the calamity to avoid future damages. He further employs management as a tool that sensitizes people on the dangers involved as well as educating them so as to offer hazard mitigation strategies. The journal is an incredible source in describing disaster management.

Vorenberg, S. (2010).Oregon agency reveals hidden landslide dangers. Daily Journal of    Commerce. Portland. http://proquest.umi.com

Vorenberg’s journal is an interesting source of information on prevalence of landslides. It attempts to explain the state of those inhabiting the environment as vulnerable as a result of the large water mass under the earth, best referred to as underground springs. Oregon and Portland is the article main focus and he reports how landslide rates have gone up. When the springs come up there are forces within the earth’s surface and the force results to slide of the surface or land. Human activity to suit needs such as constructing highways, are affected by landslides forcing them to close the routes they use for transport. The article is interesting as it explains how the transport industry has partnered with agencies to solve the problem through use of lidar scans.

 

Ravindra K. Pande, D. & Ravinder S.(2009).Landslide hazard zonation in Hanuman Chatti area of Uttarakhand, India Kumaun University, Nainital, India. http://proquest.umi.com

Most hilly and mountainous regions are prone to cases of landslides. It is traumatizing to go through the landslide once then again. Ravindra, Pandre and Ravinder explore how Hanuman Chatti in India has to deal with annual landslides cases. They distract normal activities and tourist traffic. The immense financial implications that landslides have had on this region is what interests me about this article. There have been around five new cases discoveries of landslides in the region. The article discusses the need to implement hazard management tools to help solve the problem.

Uniyal. A, (2008).Prognosis and mitigation strategy for major landslide-prone areas; A case         study of landslide in Uttarkashi township of Uttarakhand (India).Disaster Prevention and        Management. Bradford: Vol. 17, Iss. 5; pg. 622, http://proquest.umi.com

This article is interesting as it covers on a topic that is central to addressing the calamity hazard. It offers a prognosis and hazard alleviation in areas that are landslide zones. The main aim is trying to avoid environmental degradation. It encourages the community to comprehensively get involved in developing strategies of dealing with the hazard. in an attempt to minimize the impact of such disasters in the future. It explains the danger prone areas as those situated in fragile rocks and complex tectonics like Uttarkashi. Of importance is that the article urges residents to employ land use patterns that are friendlier to the environment.

Remedy

Anonymous. (2005).10 Consulting Geologists and Engineers, Canadian Mining Journal. Don       Mills: 2005 pg. 34, 4 pgs, http://proquest.umi.com

Consulting geologists and engineers are a group of professionals who deal with implementing preventive measures for natural calamities such as landslides. They have had long term experience in their fields and work to offer environmental assessment programs so as to develop ways of managing disasters. Piteau Associate Engineering interests me because they offer a range of environmental consultancies like hydro geological and geotechnical services to the world.

Brown, J. (2002).Satellite monitoring enhances landslide prediction. Civil engineering. New York: Jun     2002, Vol. 72, Iss. 6; pg. 22, 2 pgs, http://proquest.umi.com

Civil engineers who are directly involved in constructions on sloppy areas are essential in determining factors that cause landslides. The journal is useful as it analyzes how engineers use inclinometers and extensometers devices to measure land and its slopes to be able to predict which areas are likely to be affected by land slide. Researchers are also assessing land slides from outer space.

Sivitz, L. (2000). Chalk reveals greatest underwater landslide, Science News. Washington: Dec 9,             2000. Vol. 158, Iss. 24; pg. 373, http://proquest.umi.com

It has been said that the greatest underwater slides about 65m years, were following the cataclysmic event that eliminated the last dinosaurs. This is an interesting article as it gives us scientific explanation of landslides.

Ming-Chou,S. Daigee; S. & Yao-Chu Chiu. (2008). How Do Disaster Characteristics Influence    Risk Perception? Risk Analysis: An International Journal, Jun2008, Vol. 28    http://ebscohost.umi.com

The article suitably serves the purpose of explaining how risks are dealt with and those affected by them. It is a journal that offers comprehensive reports from credible sources like NRPS National risk perception survey.

Conclusion

Living in a hazard environment is not healthy for any living thing. As earlier discussed human beings are involved in making life risky through the activities they indulge in (Smith & Petley, 2007). It is also evident that natural calamities largely affect our lives in a great way. Land slides have had adverse effects to human life and property destruction. The above annotated bibliographies discuss effects, impact and remedies for landslides comprehensively. Each author has contributed immensely in defining the landslide hazard and its impacts. Activities such as transport are put to a stand still during such incidents (Vorenberg, 2011).   There have been developments of intervention measures to help eradicate the calamity by those affected. Business North Carolina (2010) reports that the Government has established an act to promote save developments and constructions and further avoid destruction of property. Geologists and engineers have formed associations to address the issue and offer assistance where needed (Anonymous, 2005).

Exclusive Oil and Gas Contracts: Domestic and International

Place an order for a custom essay, research paper on this or  related subject.


 

 

Abstract

Generally, this paper seeks to reflect more light on Oil and gas contract vis-à-vis the structuring of an oil and gas exploration and development scheme in Malawi. The government of Malawi hopes that this scheme will be a success owing to the fact that, Malawi’s neighboring Great Rift Valley in Uganda has oil. This is an indication that Malawi might be having some as well. This paper will give an introduction on the background of Malawi in relation to oil and gas; it will also give a review of the Myanmar PSC and make necessary recommendations as to whether Malawi ought to utilize it in attracting exploration and investment. Furthermore, an identification of some of the Myanmar PSC provisions will also be reviewed in determining whether they ought to be included in whatever contract the Malawi Government finally drops.

Introduction

Malawi is one of the landlocked countries geographically located in Nyasa land (Southwest Africa).This country can be categorized to be amongst the world’s least developed countries, as well as most densely populated countries. The economy of Malawi is largely based on agriculture to which the rural areas occupy most. The economy of Malawi historically depended on aids from World Bank, individual nations (foreign aids) and the International Monetary Fund.  By 2009, it was estimated that Malawi had a $12.81 GDP with per capita GDP worth $ 900. Furthermore, the inflation was estimated to be approximately 8.5 % during this same year. Since Malawi is largely populated, and yet faces these economic challenges, it is vital that the oil and gas sectors be looked at to verify any chances of increasing the general economy of the country. This could be a significant strategy in the entire economy of Malawi as a nation, and thus effecting the structuring of an oil and gas exploration and development scheme in Malawi (Background Note: Malawi, 2010).

Despite the evident fact that the Malawian economy is determined by the performance of its agricultural sector (particularly in tobacco production which is Malawi’s top fore earner), oil is a very vital aspect of the said economy. Malawi has for a ling time lacked both gas and oil reserves and thus depended mostly on imported petroleum products from its neighboring countries. Several international oil companies are said to have their marketing activities as well as distribution in Malawi which imports all its petroleum products in a refined state. Oil industry in Malawi is under the regulation of the Petroleum Control Commission (PCC) which is mandated to regulate both the distribution and regulation of fuel. According to statistics, 74% of Malawi’s commercial energy needs are supplied by the oil products, to which the market exceeds 20,000 tonnes in each given month. For a long time, the industry player in this sector has been the Energem and Nyasa Investment Oil and Transport Company, BP Malawi, Total Malawi, Chevron Malawi, Injena Petroleum ltd and Petroida (Malawi Economy Profile, 2010).

In 2004, a team of US climate researchers raised Malawian’s hope of ever owning oil reserves in Malawi. The country is said to have a potential chance of having oil in its land. The team of researchers alleged that there could be some oil under Lake Malawi. This is however contrary to previous researches which concluded to the effect that, oil and gas have not yet formed under the said lake. The structures as well as age of Lake Malawi’s sediments scientifically suggest that it is capable o harboring oil. More evidence of oil has been found previously in the Great Rift Valley lakes `such as Lake Albert in Uganda. Therefore, although there exists no evidence to the contrary, it is evident that Malawi has the potential or the high chances that it could be having oil underneath its lake. Malawi’s lack of adequate funding has thus prevented it from embarking on an intensive search for oil in its regions, which would consequently increase their low economy. Below is a diagram illustrating on the drilling sites of Lake Malawi.

Source: Lake Malawi Drilling Project.

Utilizing the Myanmar PSC in attracting exploration and investment

The PSC contract contains some clauses which can be varied after some time upon exceptional circumstances. A model agreement provides the basis for negotiating an ultimate contract; however, changes may take the form of clarifications attached to the model type. There exist several clauses under the PSC, which could be necessary in attracting exploration and investment within Malawi. These clauses make the contract viable and worth embracing (Oil Sector, 2010).

By virtue of clause 2.2 under scope of the PSC, the contractor is given responsibility over MOGE for purposes of executing Petroleum operations but within the provisions of the contract itself. The contractors are further mandated to provide both technical and financial assistance necessary for petroleum operations. Since the given contractor will carry the risk of petroleum costs needed, he shall also have an economic interest in the development of the said petroleum within the contract area. This clause has a great significance to which the Malawi government might be interested in adopting. This is because the contractor benefits directly from the said contract having an economic interest in the general development of the petroleum contract. However, this clause is also challenging by nature because it gives the risks of the petroleum costs to the contractor (Oil Sector, 2010).

Basing on clause 3.1, the contract remains effective even during the exploration and production period. This would be very beneficial to Malawi as a government because it can be able to demand its contractual rights arising during the exploration as well as production. This will in turn attract investments and more explorations on the same. Furthermore, clause 3.2 gives the contractor discretion to extend the six month study period and the three month extension. This is very essential because it gives the contractor time to satisfactorily study the given exploration area and sufficient fulfillment of his obligations. Investors are most likely to be attracted to such a contract because of the said reason which could also enhance the exploration activities (Effect on Malawi economy, 2010).

Clause 4.1 of the PSC reflects on the relinquishments of contract areas exclusive of production, discovery and development areas. Upon the lapse of the exploration period, and the all contractual areas will\be relinquished with an exception of the excluded areas. If a contractor decides to enter into another extension of the said exploration period, (as described under clause 3.2), he can select 75 % of the contract area to conduct further petroleum operations. This is also an attractive bit of this PSC because it gives the contractor the opportunity to conduct any other activities in relation to the exploration of the petroleum. This ought to attract explorations and investors because any and many petroleum operations are allowed as stipulated in this contract.

With respect to clause 6.6, the contractor is given a right to alter the details of a work program upon given circumstances. This right shall be exercised by the contract as long as the alterations made will not change the general objective of the wok program or add on expenditure. This is also a vital factor because a contractor is able to make changes where something is not efficient or fails to meet intended purpose. This is another attractive aspect of the PSC, which can enhance exploration and attract more investors (Malawi, 2010).

Furthermore, clause 6.7 of the contract also eliminates any restrictions that might hinder attempt to\ protect contractual interests upon emergencies. This clause gives parties the right to take necessary action during extraordinary circumstances or emergencies. This should be done for protection of contractual interests of the parties and employees in question. The costs incurred are to further be added in the petroleum costs. This clause is very good by the fact that it allows protective actions to be taken during emergencies. Some contracts are known to place very strict rules that apply even during emergencies. Exploration and investment will be magnetic to such a contract because these terms reflected in the said clause are attractive (Central Intelligence Agency, 2010).

The clauses reflected above are most likely able to attract exploration and foreign investors by the nature of the wording and terms stipulated therein. From the given clauses and the other mentioned clauses in the contract, it is evident that under a PSC, both the government and companies share the gas and oil output. If they fail to find deposits, the risk is on the concessionaires. Reimbursement however can be effected for both exploration and production costs if the vital reserves are found to be exploited. However, many governments that have used PSC for a while have witnessed some difficulties in calculating the definite revenuer of concessionaires which reflects on the amount of royalties it was entitled to. The weakness of PSC is further manifested in the contract by its costly recovery scheme (Professional Services Contract, 2010).

Today PSC contracts are utilized by many nations in oil and gas companies such as Malaysia, Libya, Russia and Vietnam. The major advantage if embracing a PSC contract is the fact that, the government of Malawi will be able to have control over the gas and oil found in the country. This will further enable the government of Malawi to decide as to whether a particular gas deposit ought to be sold either in the local markets or via exportation. This is very important in guaranteeing them the domestic availability of both oil and gas in Malawi. This type of contract is widely accepted and encouraged by countries like Iraq. Iraq is a major producer of oil and is said to have a petroleum law that requires the utilization of PSC.

Basing on all that has been discussed and pointed out from the contract itself; I would encourage the Malawi Government to adopt the PSC contract. However, I would also ensure that they look at the disadvantages that may accrue from its adaptation, to balance which contract will best suit their needs (PSC is not always the Best Type of Petroleum Contract for Governments, 2008).

Vital Myanmar PSC provisions

Under the given Myanmar provisions, some clauses ought to be placed in whatever contract the government of Malawi might ultimately utilize. Clause 2.2 is very vital in that, it gives the contractors a direct involvement in the exploration operations. This clause makes the contractor the exclusive company allowed to conduct petroleum operations in the given contract area. The contractor is legally allowed to have an economic interest in the general development of the said petroleum. This clause is very essential in any given contract that the government of Malawi may opt to adopt and will thus be prudent to include it in any contract they will choose.

Clause 2.4 is also of great significance by its provision. This clause states to the effect that, MOGE will assist contractors in their work performance by supplying all relevant data as well as information that relates to the contract area. This provision is essential and ought to be including I any contract that the government of Malawi will finally choose. The importance of this clause is that, the contractor is given a right to have access to all relevant information that will be necessary for the exploration activities within the contract (Simbolon, 2010).

Basing on the terms stipulated under clause 3.1, the contract remains effective to both parties until and unless terminated by the terms stipulated therein. This contract remains in effect even during exploitation period, production period and any development period whatsoever. This clause is also important in the contractual agreements that the Malawian government seeks to adopt. This clause therefore gives the stipulate contractual obligations and rights to take effect throughout the mentioned period (Cebu, 2006).

Clause 3.2 further reveals the rightful discretionary right accorded to a contractor to extend exploration period. Although the exploration period has a definite period, a contractor is given an option to extend the period at his own discretion so that he can fulfill his intended obligations and any other business needed in the study. This clause also reveals an important aspect that ought to be included in any kind of contract that the government of Malawi may decide to undertake.

 

Conclusion

In a nutshell, the Myanmar PSC contract reveals a lot of good terms that may be able to facilitate and accommodate more exploration and investments in Malawi. However, the PSC contract evidently has loopholes that need to be addressed to suit the intended needs of the Malawian government in they contract.