Ethical standards and principles are what form the basis of creating and maintaining public trust. They are rules that must be obeyed by counselors in the course of their work. Now in this case study, I am going to assess Jocelyn’s case with relation to the ethical standards to know whether Jocelyn exceeded her bounds of competence and if so, in what respect? What are the legal and ethical issues related to therapist competence? What major factors should be considered to determine your boundaries of competence given your field of study? How do you assess your competence in deciding what to do and what not? Provide an example of when competence may play a role in client care and what would you do in this situation? This is what basically I will focus on.

As far as I am concerned, Jocelyn is acting beyond her competence  because when the pastor of her church asked her to address the increasing need of a counselor in her region, she agreed to work as his extension to counsel her neighbors and if need be she would make referrals. This is an indicator that she was determined to give clinical mental health rather than let her neighbors wallow in pain. She intended to this knowing very well that her level of training did not allow her. In fact she had eight more courses before she could go in the field for practice.

The legal and ethical issues that are related to the therapist’s competence are: To be a professional counselor or a therapist you must have a valid license. The clergy are exempted from having it because theirs is a vocational ‘call’. There is a difference between professional counseling and a ‘calling’ and one should be able to draw a line between the two. One is also required to work under supervision of a fully qualified counselor before he/she can go to the field to work alone. (Barbara H. and Corey G. 2005) There are also some major factors that should be considered when determining ones boundaries of competence. First, you should complete your studies and attain the required grade. Secondly, you must have a working experience which is gained after supervised practical sessions and above all, you should have a valid license.

There are various ways to assess your level of competence in order to know what to offer or not. First, assess the problem to see whether it falls under your scope or outside. Second, you should not counsel people if you are not qualified to do so. Like Jocelyn, who had eight more courses before she could have her supervised practical. Third, you should also be able to distinguish between a profession and a ‘calling’ from above. If you have the profession, then you can go ahead and offer mental counseling. Like in this case, for the pastor is not a profession but a ‘call’. Lastly, consider yourself incompetent and unqualified if you don’t have a valid license like Jocelyn. (Corey G. et al, 2006)

Competence may play a role in client care for example when dealing with somebody who is under stress. As a competent person you should be able to approach them well so that they can open up and tell you what really is disturbing them. After that you synthesize all that information to know the root cause. From there, it is easier to know where to start and how to address the problem without referring your patient to other therapists.

To conclude, it should be known that counseling is not something that you can wake up one day and start doing it but it is something that requires seriousness, determination , in depth knowledge and a great deal of practice. It is only after this that you can know the limits of your career.

 

Reference:

Barbara H. and Corey G. 2005. Ethical Standards Casebook. American Counseling           Association. 6^th Edition.

Corey G. et al, 2006. Issues and Ethics in the Helping professions. Brooks/Cole      Publication Company,United States.

Case1: Chuck Norris co.

A)Selling price of bond

The determination of the selling price of bonds is important because it helps the bondholders know the yield they will receive if they were to purchase the bond.

Bonds can be issued at par, premium and at a discount. A Bond is said to be issued at par if the yield is equal to the coupon rate. If the current market yield is more than the coupon rate stated on the bond, then, that bond has been issued at premium. If the coupon rate is more than the yield rate currently earned by similar bonds in the market (Sheth, 2007, Slide 23, chapter 12)

Bondholders receive periodic payments of interest amount, which is constant over the life of bond. Therefore the price of the bond is arrived at by discounting all these payments i.e. the selling price is the present value of all periodic payments plus the present value of the maturity amount, which is the principle amount of the bond. (Englard, 1992, Page 6, chapter 1)

The formula for calculating the price of the bond is as shown below.

Bond price= (PV) =p (1+r^)-2 + p (1+r)^-2 +…. +p (1+r^)-n + m (1+R)^-n

Where =p= period receipt/payment

r=required yield –effective

M=maturity value (principle amount)

The periodic receipts of interest amount are constant over the bond period and therefore are annuity in nature.

Therefore to calculate the present value of the interest payments the annuity formula is used.

Present value interest payments=                    Constant interest receipts* (1-(1 +r) ^–n

                                                                                                                                                                r

The maturity amount (principle) is received as a single amount at the end of the bond period, thus is a single amount discounted using the single amount formula.

Present value maturity value =m (1+r)^-1

Therefore, the total selling price is the sum of present value of interest and principal amount.

2) Presentation of bonds in balance sheet

When a bond is issued, the following factors are considered in accounting for the bonds.

– Recording the issue or purchase of the bond

– Recording the interest received during the life of the bond.

-Accounting for the retirement (through calling, refinancing or conversion) of the bond. (Sheth, 2007, Slide 16, Chapter 12)

Issuer’s books

As seen earlier bonds can be issued at par, discount or premium.

Bond issued at par– the bonds were issued between interest dates.

Long-term liabilities.

Bond payable                                      xxx

Current liability

Interest payable (1 month)                  xxx

Current assets

Cash (amount of bond)                       xxx

Bond issued at a discount

Long-term liabilities

Bonds payable                                                xxx

Discount on bonds payable                 xxx

Current assets

Cash (less discount on bond)              xxx

Bonds issued at a premium

Long-term liabilities

Bonds payable (plus premium)           xxx

Current assets

Cash (including premium)                   xxx

Investors books

The buyers’ balance sheet will be as follows

At par

Assets

Investments in bond                           xxx

Current-asset

Interest accrued (1 month)                  xxx

Cash (amount of bond)                       xxx

At discount

Assets

Investment in bond (less discount)     xxx

Current assets

Cash                                                    xxx

At premium

Assets

Bond investment (plus premium)        xxx

Current assets

Cash                (plus premium)            xxx

B) Income statement items

The items that will be included in the income statement of Norris co. for the year 2008 include

-Interest expenses

-Adjustment to interest expenses (amortization)

Interest expenses

The amount of interest is determined using the par value and the coupon rate and not effective rate. (Englard, 1992, page 2-3)

Illustration

At par

Using the example of Norris co. bond assuming that it was issued at par, then the interest will be 1000*xx%= interest

At discount

Payment- interest = xx%*1000

Interest amount = yy% *(1000-discount)

The difference between the interest payment and interest amount is amortization of discount.

At premium

Interest payment =xx% * 1000

Interest amount= yy% * (1000 +premium)

The difference between the interest payment and the interest amount is the amortization of premium

Amortization of discount/premium

If the selling price/issuing price of the bond is higher than the par value, then is issued at a premium while if issued at a lower price than the par value, then, it is at a discount.

The discount or premium on issue is amortized over the life of the bond using either the straight line or effective interest rate method.

Straight lime method

Amortization=                         Amount of discount/premium

Life of bond

Effective interest rate

Interest payment = xx% *1000

Less: interest amount = (yy % * (1000+ premium)

Premium amortization                         xxx

Interest amount = yy% * (1000-discount)

Less: interest payment = (xxx% /* 1000)

Discount amortization             xxx

C) Discount on issue

When the bond is issued at a discount, the issue amount is lower than the par value. The redemption/maturity amount is equal the par value.

Therefore the amortization is used to increase the bond book value over the life of the bond. All the discount will be amortized over the life of the bond and the amount on maturity will be= (discount + discount issue price)

Illustration –amortization table

                        A                      B                    C                       D

(yy % * disctd.amt)    (xx%*1000)    (A-B)=C          D=(C+ Book value)

Period interest amount interest payment discount amortization   bond book value

0                      –                       –                       1000-discount             discounted amount

1                      xxx                  xxx                  A-B                             D+ (A-B)

The amortization amount is used to increase the interest expenses in order to reflect the extra interest paid to the bond holder (Englard, 1992, page 8 paragraph 1).

D)Reporting retirement of bonds

Bonds can be paid up before its maturity date usually at a specified price. If the price is more than the book value of the bond then, the difference is a loss on retirement while if paid amount is less, then, it is a gain.

Gains and losses on retirement are treated as extra ordinary items in the income statement.

The book value of the bond is equal to the value minus any discount if the bond issued at a discount or plus the premium if the bond was issued at a premium.

The amortization of the premium or discount should be up to the retirement date.

The retirement of the bond leads to the closure of the bonds payable account, any premium discount and the cash is reduced by the amount of the bond balance. And the loss or gain on retirement is recognized in the income statement (Englard, 1992, page 7, paragraph 1)

It is important to note also any bond costs should be amortized over the life of the bond. Upon retirement, any unamortized bond costs are written off in the income statement.

Case 2, Iroquois corp.

A (i) recording of equipment at $ 100,000

Assets and liabilities are recorded in the books at the cost incurred to acquire the asset or liability (original cost). This is a requirement under the US GAAPs

The historical cost in this case includes the purchase price and all other incidental costs that enable the asset to be used by the company. Some of the incidental costs are legal fees, transportation, installation and pre-installation set up costs.

The advantage of recording assets using historical cost is that it resolves the inconsistencies as to what amount to record if fair market value was to be used (Mukherjee, Hanif, Financial Accounting 1.11)

Any discount on acquisition should be subtracted from the purchase price. In case the asset is acquired for a consideration other than cash e.g. shares, bonds, then, the fair market value of the shares, bonds should be the cost of the asset.

Subsequent costs to improve the asset should be capitalized as long as the additional costs leads to the increment of useful life of the asset and leads to increased productivity.

In the question, recording the asset at $ 100,000 is wrong and is not in line with GAAP provision of recording the asset at the price actually paid for the asset ($200,000)

The $ 100,000 is only part of the total cost of the equipment. The total cost must include the valuation of the Treasury stock. Treasury stock should be valued at the fair market value.

2) Recording equipment at & 175,000

The cost of the equipment if it was to be bought using cash is $ 175,000. However, the cost increased to $ 200,000 because of the use of & 100,000 treasure stock part of the payment.

Therefore the amount to be recorded is $ 200,000 i.e. the cash price plus fair value amount of Treasury stock of $100,000. Recording the cost of the equipment at $ 175,000 will be inconsistent with the historical cost principle and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAPs) (Charumathi, Virayakam, 2004, page 17)

 

3) Recording equipment at $ 200,000

Recording the acquisition of the equipment at $ 200,000 being $ 100,000 cash and $ 100,000 treasury stock is the correct historical cost of the asset.

The total in this case should be the cash payment and fair value of Treasury stock of $100,000 and $100,000 respectively.

The cash price of $ 175,000 is irrelevant now because the asset was not wholly acquired using cash and therefore recording the cash price is incorrect.

Any change in the fair value of the treasury stock should however be accounted for separately.

B.) Treatment of balance

i) Treatment of balance as liability

A liability basically is that obligation which legally binds a company or individuals to pay a stated amount of debt.

Liabilities can be short term e.g. accounts payable, accrued expenses and long term liabilities e.g. loans and bonds. Current liabilities are due within one year where as long term liabilities are due after more than one year.

Based on the above description, therefore, the balance which is to be repaid using Treasury stock over a period can be treated as a liability. Precisely the part that is due within a year is current and that due after one year is long term.

The obligation to pay the balance using treasury stock is also in the purchase agreement. This means that the company is legally bound to pay the debt using Treasury stock and as seen above a liability is an obligation that legally binds one to pay the debt hence the balance can be treated as a liability.

The other aspect of a liability is that it is an obligation incurred in the past transactions and the payment is at a future date. The balance is as a result of the past transaction of acquiring the equipment in which the balance is to be paid over a period of four years. In this respect therefore the balance qualifies to be treated as a liability.

ii) Treatment of balance as treasury stock subscribed

Treasury stock is shares that the company issued and reacquired so that they can be retired or re-issued again. The Treasury stock is treated as reduction in shareholders equity thus the reason why Treasury stock is a negative number in the balance sheet. (Sheth, Slide 23,   2007)

The issue of the Treasury stock as part of the payment for the acquisition of the equipment is equal to the selling of the shares and therefore the share capital is either increased or decreased with the amount depending on the issue price.

Since it was agreed that the balance was to be cleared using the Treasury stock then it is prudent that the share capital is either increased or decreased with the amount of the balance.

Another reason for treating the balance as Treasury stock subscribed is that the shares were earlier on re-acquired with the intention that the share price will increase and thereby reducing the number of shares to be issued to clear the balance.

Case 3 (FAS B. 115)

A)    This statement deals with equity investments with fair values that can be readily determined as well as all investments in debt securities.

These investments are classifieds in to three i.e. held-to-maturity, trading securities and available-for-sale securities. (FASB 115, paragraph 2, 3 and 4)

Available-for-sale securities are those that do not fit the description of held-to-maturity and trading securities. They are reported at fair value with unrealized losses or gains excluded in the income statement but reported as a separate component of equity.

Held-to- maturity are those that the company wishes and intends to hold until they mature. They are reported at amortized cost (FASB 115, Paragraph 2)

Trading securities are those bought solely for disposal in the short term. These securities are recorded at fair value with the gains or lose being taken to the income statement.

i) Availability for-sale securities

The advantages of a company investing in available-for-sale securities are as elaborated below

The availability-for-sale securities can be sold any time i.e. they are very liquid and therefore it is beneficial to the company in case it encounters cash flow problems as compared to borrowing.

Securities in the available-for-sale category usually have a tight spread as compared to the index and this therefore enables the holder to buy other cheaper securities from the money realized (Hullis, May 8, 2006, Para 2)

Held-to-maturity

A company would want to invent in held-to- maturity securities simply because capital appreciation purposes. Most securities held over the long term usually appreciate in value and therefore the company benefits in the long run.

The company may also want to earn constant income over the investment period. Held-to-maturity securities can be bonds, which promise constant returns until maturity.

Trading securities

These securities are purely held by the company for speculative purposes i.e. they are bought when the prices are low and sold off when they appreciate. The company benefits from the appreciated value.

2) Separate accounts

Available-for-sale, held-to-maturity and trading securities are recorded in separate accounts primarily because of the different accounting treatment accorded to each.

FASB 115 calls for the different treatment of these investments.

Held-to-maturity securities are reported at amortized cost according o FABS 115. Held-to-maturity securities include debt. The periodic interest payments are recorded in the income statement as income.

The security amount is amortized over life of the asset with the balance at the end of the year being recorded in the balance sheet.

Trading securities are reported at fair value with any gain or loss unrealized being taken to the income statement. Fair value is the market value.

Available-for-sale securities are reported in the balance sheet at fair value with unrealized gains or losses being recorded as a separate component of equity.

From the above analysis therefore it would present challenges if al the three classes were to be recorded in the same account because of the different accounting treatment for each. (FASB 115)

B)    (i) Classification of assets.

The liquidity of the investment is one of the factors used in security classification. Trading securities and available-for-sale securities should be liquid so that they can be disposed-off easily when the cash is needed.

The nature of security return is also considered in designing securities. Most held-to-maturity securities have constant returns. Bonds and other forms of debt instruments fall in this category.

Time period of the investment is also a factor that is considered. Trading securities and available-for-sale can be sold at any time while held-to-maturity can be redeemed at the end of the period or after some time if the contract provides for an early retirement.

ii) How factors affect unrealized losses

Unrealized losses is to be reported in the income statement for trading securities because they can be disposed off at any time while available-for-sale it is recorded as a separate component of equity because these investments can be sold if need be but not as easily as trading securities.

iii) Availability-for-sale securities

Unrealized losses are to be treated as a component of equity but as a separate item

Held-to-maturity

Amortized over the useful life of the asset

Trading securities

Recorded in the income statement

 

 

Reference:

FASB (1993) Summary of Statement No. 115.Accounting for Certain Investments in

   Debt and Equity. Retrieved on 25/1/2008 from

http://www.fasb.org/st/summary/stsum115.shtml

Hollis, E. (2006) Making Securities “Available for Sale” Retrieved on 25/1.2008 from

http://www.cunacfocouncil.org/news/819.html

Englard, B. (1992) Intermediate accounting II: Long-term Liabilities.New York. McGrawHill-

Professional

Mukherjee, A., &Hanif, M.  Financial Accounting: Accounting Concepts and Conventions.Tata

Mc Graw Hill

Charumanthi, B., & Virayakam, N. (2004). Financial Accounting. Accounting principles,

Accounting Concepts.New Delhi. S. Chand

Sheth, S. (2007). Intermediate Accounting 16E: Debt Financing. Retrieved on 25/1/2008 from

http://instructor.mstc.edu/instructor/jkruziki/ACCTIII/ch12-A.ppt

Women remain a special group in the society. Despite their high populations they are marginalized and have few legislative positions in society. Empowering women will reduce discrimination rates in the world. Issues that affect women participating in or those affected by the criminal justice vary with race or state. Women of color face greater discrimination from the system, which seems to be using its machinery to enforce inequalities. (www.amnestyusa.org).

The number of women victimized, offenders and criminal justice practitioners is increasing by the day. As the society develops more challenges are emerging. Women, as a marginalized part of society are prone to sex crimes. Women and girl trafficking has risen as illegal organization operates to use them for forced prostitution. Corrupt officials at varying levels allow such activities. Women in developing countries are at higher risks due to economic constraints. Victims of prostitution in foreign countries are deported to their mother countries where they are treated with discrimination making them more susceptible to such traffickers again.           In the family setup women are prone to domestic violence that could range from rape, sexual assault or trafficking.

Economic distress is a leading factor for women criminality. Drugs and alcohol abuse also lead them to commit crimes. Poverty leads to human trafficking where women are likely to be abused physically and sexually. 70% of violence against women is either domestic or committed by an acquaintance compared with 41% of crimes against men. (www.cwu.org). Without effective programs in the society where offenders are absorbed crime rates will remain on the rise. Community based care programs will be appropriate to this respect. Women practitioners in the criminal justice system face gender bias. They tend to face challenges that hinder their development in their career. Gender based discrimination affect their recruitment as well as promotion. Fewer women are in the system hence inefficiencies in addressing women’s issues. In 2004 for instance only 8.3% of women were in the Judiciary, high court judge and other positions. (www.cwu.org). Affirmative action can work to ensure a positive more in reducing the disparities.

Cultural values for instance the view that family is private and should be protected or honored sees some women suffer in the hands of cruel husbands. Some victims do not trust the criminal justice system to effectively address their problem and consequently they do not consult them. Victimized women suffer in foreign countries where communication barriers may result to communication barriers. Again they may not be conversant with the legal systems of the foreign nations.

The criminal justice system is ineffective when dealing with women caught in forced prostitution. They face harsh treatment than their abusers. Harsh punishment should be enforced so that justice prevails. The system is biased against women. Few women report sexual assaults and even for those who report the prosecution and conviction rates are low. The offenders do not seem to reform and re-victimization occurs frequently. The procedures taken in courts tend to demean women and thus the increased dropped cases. Some women fail to report assaults for fear of publicity. They may fail to report to protect their public image in fear that the public will know they were assaulted.

Fear of the offender is also a cause of under prosecution of sexual assault cases. The offender may threaten the victim that he would cause harm in case he is reported.

(Jan J, 2001) Some women fear that they might be blamed or accused that they were responsible for their sexual assaults. Others fail to report such cases for fear that those they care about for instance family members will find out about their sexual assaults. (www.justicewomen.com). The trial process where the offender is in the same room with the victim causes some to drop the charges as it is traumatizing.

Criminal justice system must be comprehensive to be effective. Proper follow up, probation monitoring and victim support must be incorporated in the system. Some officers are biased against women resulting to inefficiencies. (Wendy M, 1997) Others are reported to respond untimely to calls of distress from victimized women. Again more protection seems to be given to the criminals rather than the victims. These move makes the criminals keep pursuing their heinous acts. On the other hand the victims (women) live in despair as the system fails to protect them. Their bold move of rising beyond shame associated with the knowledge that people are aware of what happened to them is made in vain.

There are approximately 138,000 women in prisons in the USA, thrice the number of women incarcerated in 1985. (www.amnestyusa.org).  Women form a small proportion of the population compared to men. They face challenges in the prisons, which are mostly programmed and managed to serve males. Programs favoring men tend to be given priority. Women play a vital role in the family setup as most women take care of their children. Most of the women in prisons are detached from their families as they are held in prisons in different cities. The system in place is biased and it fails to provide gender specific services. They are at times sexually assaulted by staff members in the system that is meant to protect and reform them. Appropriate skills on parenting, drug abuse and sexual exploitation that mostly affect women are not addressed. Pregnant women in prison need special attention to protect their unborn children. (www.amnestyusa.org).

 

References:

Woman’s Justice Center. 2000. Mapping the Obstacles to Criminal Justice for Women. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.justicewomen.com/handbook/part1_intro.html

Amnesty International. Violations of the Human Rights of Women in Custody. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=D0F5C2222D1AABEA8025690000692FC4

Pauline Granstan. Facts  & Figures on gender discrimination. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.cwu.org/uploads/documents/RD05-05-121%20UPDATED%20FACTS%20%20FIGURES%20ON%20GENDER%20DISCRIMINATION.DOC

Jordan Jan. 2001. Worlds Apart? Women, Rape and the Police Reporting Process. British Journal of Criminology vol. 41, no 4.p 679-706.

Murphy Wendy.1997. Gender Bias in the Criminal Justice System. Harvard Women’s Law Journal, vol. 20: p 14-26.

When we take a trip down the memory lane up to 1878, we get to know Gustav Stresemann who was born on 10^th may 1878 and later died on 3^rd October 1929. His father was a prosperous owner of a restaurant and tavern. When he was young, he used to help in the family business and because he was very lonely, he pursed his studies assiduously. He came from a middle class family and therefore he was able to acquire his higher education at the University Berlin andLeipzig where he studied philosophy and literature. He also received a degree in political economy. It is during this period when he was a spokesman for the university students association that he discovered he had leadership qualities as well as the potential for literary attainment.

He used his literary skills to write some critical essays on the utopian writings of Thomas Moore and the lyrics of Strauss F. He also criticized the deeds ofBismarckand later on Napoleon’s. He wrote his dissertation on economic investigation on theBerlin’s beer trade. Basically it highlighted on the pressures of capitalism of a big market on the middle class ofBerlinwho were economically independent.

Stresemann started making his economic contribution in a great way in 1901. During the period when he was twenty two years, he served as a clerk to the German’s Chocolate Association of the manufactures in Dresden. The following year he assumed control over the manufacture’s business management alliance at local level branch. With his competence in organizing, he increased the members in the manufactures business management’s alliance from hundred and eighty in 1902 to a thousand in 1904 and later in 1912, he increased the number of the members to about five thousands.[1]

As time went by, he became strongly convinced that there was a relationship between economic politics and economy management, thus he started seeking for an elective office. Due to his efforts he secured himself a seat in theDresden’s town council where he stayed in this position for about six years. In 1917 he became the leader of National Liberal Party.

It was while he was in Dresdenthat he married his wife Kathe Keefeld. His whole life revolved around his wife whom he loved so much and they had two sons. Gustav was an ardent supporter of Germanic policies. He emphasized and believed in force, authority and discipline in all aspects of life. He wanted Germanyto build a very strong navy which would then help Germanyto increase and protect its overseas trade and commerce. He was of the idea that submarines should be allowed to conduct unrestricted warfare. He greatly contributed to the defeat of Bethmann’s government and strongly opposed the Versaillestreaty of 1919 in totality.[2]

It was inBerlinthat he developed his liberal ideas. In 1900 he was awarded his doctorate after presenting his dissertation on “The growth of theBerlinbottled beer industry.” He based it on the knowledge he had acquired from running his father’s businesses. His topic also touched on the decline of small sector business as a result of stiff competition from the big businesses. The ideas which inspired him to write his dissertation were later used against him by his right wing opposition figures. In his family he was the only one among five children who was able to attend high school and later his higher education at theuniversityofLeipzigandBerlin. He was a relentless Prussian liberal protestant. Gustav was a typical person who chauvinistically represented the imperialGermany. As mentioned earlier, he believed in military supremacy and economic advancement in the German empire. His political contributions were manifested by actively participating in heroic liberation of 1848 and also in his romantic speech in style.

Initially Stresemann sympathized with the ideas of Neumann Friend rich who was a social reformer protestant, Gustav started developing an interest in the rightist’s liberal party and later joined it in 1903. For the simple reason that the party was well represented inSaxony, National Liberal Party became Stresemann’s political home. He was involved in many conflicts over his support on the right wing of his party which mostly comprised of representatives of heavy industries. He was recognized in 1906 and became widely known when he first appeared at a party congress.

From 1906-1912 when he was a councilor in Dresdencity, he become also became a renowned writer in economics after he edited the ‘Dresdenmagazine Sachsische industrie.’ He also became widely known as an expert in municipal affairs. As time went by, he realized how media can influence the public opinion. He used it to influence people to support his ideas. In 1907, he became the Member of Parliament (Reichstag) of Annenberg district thereby staging himself squarely in politics. At the age of 28 years he became the youngest deputy in the parliament. He was helped by his party chairman, Ernst Bassermann to advance his politics and sooner than later he became Bassermann’s “crown prince.” Stresemann’s interests were in economic policies both as journalist and the deputy of the house. He represented the ideas of the commercial middle class. [3]

When the time he came to go toBerlin, he was among the best known economic leaders inGermany. While inBerlin, he helped to establish the American Economic Association (AEA) which originated from his idea. He came to occupy many official positions including the leading position in AEA. There he became known for his organizational skills and his interpersonal skills. By mid 1923, theGermany’s economy was in tatters andWeimar’s nation was on its way to collapse yet it regained its prosperity and its stability. People should ask themselves how this happened. All this was the fruits of Stresemann’s economic management skills and his undying efforts towards reforming his beloved nation. He was committed to nationalist as we have seen but he was of the view thatGermany’s problems could only be solved by moderation and working closely with other nations. This is why he initiated the signing of Locato treaty as well as many others. All this was achieved when he became the minister of foreign affairs of his nation.

One of his first strategies in revising the economy of the republican ofWeimarwas by introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark; he cut the government spending by cutting the number of employees who reined on the government tax. About 7,000,000 lost their jobs. These measures helped to reverse the hyperinflation and to bring back the confidence.

Stresemann stayed as a chancellor for only 4 months though he was given a job for the foreign minister; it is during this period when he was a foreign minister that he is remembered for. For example in 1942 he signed on treaty with the allies under the Dawes plan wherebyUSAproposed to giveGermany800 million gold marks so that it could revive its already dying economic base. ThenGermanywas given more time to pay its reparations and the reparations were reduced. Also under another treaty in 1929, the young plan pact was signed to extend the period for paying reparations though payment of reparations stopped in 1930 after he died and Hitler took over.

The economic recovery witnessed, in Weimar, after 1924 was reflected in cultural revivals that were seen in various fields ranging from architecture to opera. During Kaiser’s period, there was censorship but after the transition in government, freedom replaced this. Lottransformations were seen in the past, no body was allowed to criticize the government and any song or book that mentioned anything to do with sex was banned. During this period Berlinthrived with art collections for many German playwrights like Bertolt Brecht became famous and painters like George Grosz and Hannah Hoach came to be known.[4]

Stresemann was a member of the pan-German Deutcher Kolonialverein and it is during this time that he became a strong supporter of strong naval construction program. He advocated for the German’s imperialistic policies which were pursued under the leadership of Alfred von Tirpitz and Bernhard and Furst von Bulow.

As I said earlier in this paper, Stresemann was totally opposed to the terms of the Versaillestreaty and for that reason, he joined the majority German’s who held the same view. He strongly believed that Germany’s role in the First World War was purely defensive. He maintained that Germanywas only defending itself from external aggressions. He fought in the World War I with a lot of vigor but was later exempted from the military service on military grounds. However, in 1914, his political mileage returned when he went back to Reichstag for a special election. When Streseman was in the war, he advocated for pan- Germanism and a champion of Germany’s claims on foreign territories especially on the Polish and on Prussian territories in the East. Also, he helped Germanyto further its claims on French (Alsaceand Lorraine) as well as in Belgiumterritories in the West. He took over the leadership of his national liberal party from Basserman who was away from military service because of health problems. During this time, Gustav increasingly moved to the right and from 1916 he became the parliamentary mouthpiece of German army supreme command under field marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Ludendorff after working loosely with them. Here he was opposed to the ideas of Theo bald von Bachmann Hollweg the then chancellor who somehow did not commit himself fully to the territory expansion missions.[5]

Stresemann differed also with Bethmann in his support of u-boat warfare. Because of these differences and others, he arranged how Bathmann would be overthrown on July 1917 but was unable to reinstate the powerful chancellor Bulow whom he admired very much. It was after Bethmann’s death in July 1917 that he became a key figure in the Reich tag’s party faction and later he became the full chairman of the party. His party was much threatened to be divided by many differences that different party factions held but he managed to harmonize them to keep the party united. The main difference was over the three class suffrage system inPrussiawhich used citizen’s wealth to measure his political vote. Stresemann hoped to make his party a monarch and therefore, he wanted to bring to an end the idea of voting but on the other hand he allowed to be fooled on how the military situation was in Reich and its allies until the supreme command accepted that they were defeated in September 1918.

On November 9^th 1918 the defeat of his military in the war the collapse of his monarchy and the flight of emperor William ii to Holland were like death blows to Gustav but he quickly started to see the realities of the Germany republican more positively later Stresemann founded his own party-the German’s people’s party after he was not offered a chance in the newly formed left liberal German democratic party. This newly formed party was headed by a renowned sociologist of the time Max Weber with collaboration of fried rich Naumann.

Stresemann sought to rally behind all the educated and other propertied elements. He was fundamentally opposed to the Weimarrepublic’s views Gustav developed a “wait and see” attitude during the attempted putsch of March 1920 by the rightist Kapp. But when this failed to materialize, he started singing a different tune. He started to prepare himself how he could join and politically cooperate with the republicans. He tried as much as he could to convince the German democratic parties that his party was qualified to work hand in hand with the government in a coalition. He ardently demanded to be offered a position in the government up to this time, he was considered to be in national opposition to the coalition.[6]

As a member of the national constituent assembly, Gustav was opposed to the German’s constitution of 1919-1920 and was determined to dedicate his life to press for the revision of the treaty ofVersaillesof 1919 which was considered harsh by the German’s.

The treaty placed the main blame for the First World War outbreak on deputy of Reichstag and the chairman to the (GPP) or the German People’s Party.

In 1923, Gustav became the chancellor of Reich after he was chosen as the leader of the great the great coalition “that was formed by the social democrats, the center the German democrats and his party supporters. It was during the period he was the chancellor that he became a European stature statesman. This was because of how he was able to use decisive influence over the fate of theWeimarrepublic. Stresemann’s first goal was to stop supporting the idea of furthering passive resistance in theRuhr. The passive resistance was staged to weaken the French and Belgian troops who had been placed to makeGermanypay the war reparations. This was against his wish and he only did it because it was increasing inflation in the country and the economy was on its way to collapsing.

At home he was facing some opposition but he was determined to steer his way irrespective of their presence. He used a punitive approach towards the communist influenced state governments in Saxony and also in Thuringiabut he was a bit sympathetic to the radical right’s revolutionary moves. For example, that which was spearheaded by Hitler in Munichon 9^th November 1923. At this period, Stresemann’s government was trying very hard to stabilize the currency which was already unstable but finally, his government managed to restore the domestic order which was somehow disturbed by the threats of the territories in west of the Rhine that wanted to disassociate themselves from the Reich. He streamlined all the differences that had risen at this period. This is what became to be the foundation of the economy recovery. Stresemann was able to stabilize the already threatened economy by his economic knowledge that he acquired from his university education atLeipzig andBerlin.

Stresemann Gustav who became a chancellor in 1923 and a foreign minister. From 1924-1929 of theWeimarrepublic, much of the credit for restoring theGermany’s international after the World War One. Gustav became a foreign minister after he was removed from the office through a vote of no confidence. After he was voted out, he sought a position from the newly formed government. Unchallenged by the coalition government he was able to stay in power until the day he died in 1929. This coalition had three different chancellors one from the right, left and the centre.

His foreign mission was to renew and reconcile with the Western nations likeFrance. His country also renewed its ties withRussiaunder the 1922Rapallotreaty. He thought that ifWeimarrepublic would pay the reparations and somehow convince the western nations to reduce the reparations just as he did in a bid to remove the allied troops from the west ofRhine, then he would find the first in a good position where he can negotiate well with the First World War victorious powers. His top most ambition was to returnGermanyto its former position that it enjoyed before the war broke out.

What this meant is that most of the terms of the treaty were to be revised. For example the clause that concerned theGermany’s eastern border. He wanted this clause to be revised so thatPolandcould be asked to return the Danzig city, the Polish Corridor which was initially thelandofGermany, Upper Silesia andGermanyto be allowed to unite with its citizens inAustria. Stresemann was a sharp and keen man who could well see the tension that was there at that period between the east and the west. The tension was between communism wave that was being spread to the west. They wantedGermanyto be a stumbling block against communism that was threatening to take root in the Western nations. Gustav exploited this tension to further the interests of his country. The allied powers were willing to listen to him so he tried everything in his capacity to save his country though his relation with the East and the West drew a lot of criticism by many critics. He was driven by a very strong passion that sometimes made him to go beyond the mark. He could not see the opposition that came from home as well as from abroad.

Though there was a lot of opposition to his ideas, he still made some noticeable moves. For example he managed to convinceUSAin 1924 to sign the Dawes plan which was basically concerned with the treaty ofVersailles. It addressed the reduction of reparations and ways to stabilizeGermany’s financial base. During the following year another treaty was signed. This pact was called theLocarnotreaty. It was all about the new Franco- German border where the parties involved agreed to the terms. It also talked about the guidelines for arbitrating disputes and to protectGermanyfrom new sanctions by the victors. It was signed at a conference that was held inLocarnoSwitzerlandbyGreat Britain, France Germany,Italy,Belgium,CzechoslovakiaandPoland. Germanywas represented by Stresemann who also signed a pact betweenFrance,Poland, andCzechoslovakiaon mutual defense against any future possible aggression onGermany. HereGermanywas even promised that it would be allowed to join theLeague of Nations. TheLocarnotreaty was a signal of a new era of goodwill and peace in the whole world though this pact was rejected later by Adolf Hitler who in 1936 put his military on the demilitarizedRhineland.

According to the pact, the first Rhinelandwas to be evacuated by the allied powers. In 1926, Germanywas allowed to join the League of Nations. Still in same year, a mutual neutrality treaty was signed between Germanyand the western nations. Later in 1926, the Kellogg-Briand pact signed by Germany. This pact is also known as the signed on 27^th august 1928. The treaty required all nations to stop using war as an instrument of national policy.[7]

Though the treaty failed to achieve its goals, it was later useful in international law development. This pact was named after frank B. Kellogg who was the secretary of state inAmericaand the Arostide Briad, French’s foreign minister who helped in drafting the pact. In this conference,Germanywas represented by Stresemann Gustav. The parties involved thought that if they led by example, other nations would adhere the treaty as soon as it came in to power, therefore bringing all the world’s civilized nations towards denouncing war.

Stresemann never even witnessed the evacuation of the allied troops especially those of the French from the Rhineland neither the completion of the reduction ofGermanyreparation strategy through theUSproposal that was dubbed the young plan in 1929.

Despite his achievements abroad, Gustav had to fight the opposition that was coming from his home country especially his own party. He tried to use the press to influence the public opinion of his people but he raised people’s hope by making pre-mature promises that were not practical or that could not materialize. During the last two years of his life he was fighting his illness and failure to make his foreign policies bear fruits. He was especially disappointed by how he failed to fully influence his party which had split and majority of its supporters joined the rightists. He felt so bad such that, at one time, he had even contemplated of forming a new liberal centre party but the stiff struggle that he encountered at home and his illness made him to succumb to death.

Stresemann is mostly remembered for promoting democracy Weimer’s Republic and in bringing economic integration but his most notable achievement was the role he played in unitingGermanyandFrance. This made him and Aristide Briand to receive a Nobel Prize in 1926. Stresemann was initially associated with the left wing of the liberal nationals then in First World War he joined the right wing backing monarchy and imperialistic goals. Also, he supported uncontrolled submarine warfare. This association with the right wing made him to be thrown out of the Germany Democratic Party after world war one was over.

The role is played in fighting forWeimar’s stability and its survivor. He applied extra ordinary effects to overcome the resistance that was coming from abroad as well as from his home. This was echoed during his state burial which highlighted the fact that it lost one of its few great statesmen. His period witnessed the uncertainty of supporting the monarchy and changing to republican. Despite these uncertainties, he tried zealously to hold on his party leadership until his death.

Lately, Stresemann is depicted by some as a hero especially after the Second World War period, 1945. He was viewed as the united champion hero. However, this view was downplayed by the UShistorian who had an access to his literary work. This view which contradicted the original was being propagated by US historians because they knew that others had no access to his writings which by then had been banned from being circulated. For this reason, people would believe whatever they were told. He was portrayed as a flexible opportunistic politician who sought the sympathy of the people. He is also depicted as a cunning person who flexibly changed his views to suit the time. It is said that he never became a democrat out of his own will but to suit to the eyes of his supporters. The communists portray him as an advocate of monopolized capitalism and as the one who prepared the stage for Hitler. He is also characterized as pragmatic conservatist in one of the contemporary biographies who remained open to the choice of politics especially when working for the Germany’s restoration in terms of wealth, economic order and power.[8]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Crozier, Andrew J. The Colonial Question in Stresemann’s Locarno Policy. The     International history Review, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Feb. 1982.

 

Enssle Manfred J. Stresemann’s Diplomacy Fifty Years after Locarno. The Historical        Journal, Vol. 20, No. 4, Dec. 1977.

 

Fink, Carole, German Revisions politik, Historical Papers [Canada] 1986, 134-145.

 

Gatzke, Hans W. Gustav Stresemann: A Bibliographical Article. The Journal of Modern    History, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 1964.

 

Grathwol, Robert. Gustav Stresemann: Reflections on his Foreign Policy. The Journal of   Modern History; Vol. 45, No. 1, March 1973.

 

Jones, Catherine. The 1929 League of Nations Initiative: Aristide Briand’s Plan for           European Federation. The Journal of theGeorgia Association of Historians; Vol. 19,    1998.

 

New York Times. Stresemann a Strong Man and Big Hope of Germany:  August 19,         1923.

 

Wright Jonathan. Gustav Stresemann: Weimar’s Greatest Statesman. History Today          Great Britain: Nov. 2002; Vol. 52.

 

 

The development of modern western civilization can be traced back to the period between the early eighteen centuries and early twentieth century. This is the period that would witness the dominance of the European culture and values with other civilizations taking a back seat. The spread of western values and influence into the rest of the globe took place in two phases, these being the old and the new imperialisms. Both the old and the new imperialism were driven by similar motives that revolved around economics.

The old imperialism was predominantly motivated and driven by the search and establishment of trade routes. Imperialism can simply be defined as the exertion of influence and control by one nation over another, culturally, politically, or economically.  The old imperialism took place between the 16-18th centuries. This was a period characterized by relative expansion of the economy in most of the European powers and intensification of commerce. There arose the need for these powers to expand their trading territory. This was the basic drive unlike in the new imperialism that was fuelled by a multiplicity of factors. This period would see the then European powers ranging from Great Britain and Spain emerge dominant over the rest of the nations by establishing trade routes in commerce lucrative areas.

On the other hand, the new imperialism kicked off in the late nineteenth century and would see the rise of the powerful nations extending political control over the weaker ones. It would see the exertion of immense influence held by the powerful empires over the weak states especially in the Third World countries. One major difference between the new and old imperialism exists on the territory shift. While in the old one, the imperialists were targeting the territories that were along the prime trade routes, now these nations were moving deeper into the interior; they wee not limiting their influence along the sea and ocean routes. This radical shift in the territories covered emanates from the differences in the motivation for imperialism. As mentioned, the first venture was purely based on economics. The new imperialism however was based on economics, balance of power and nationalism.

The first imperialism had the search for gold and other valuable minerals as the key commodities. However at the onset of the new imperialism there came an urgent and insatiable need for raw materials. Intense industrial revolution was going on in most European countries. Mechanization was becoming the order of the day coupled with mass production and consumption. New territories had to be found from which raw materials could be found to support industrialization at home as well as to market the products across the oceans (Headrick, D. R., 19).

There had also arisen a battle of supremacy among the European powers, nations such as Europe were stepping up their efforts to challenge the dominance of great Britain both in economics and in maritime. The only way to fight this dominance was through extending their influence abroad mostly to Asia and in Africa. Britain was not to be left behind. What would follow after this was the scramble of Africa.

Close to nationalism was also the issue of balance of power. The domination of Britain led to some of other European nations feeling inadequate and had to acquire colonies abroad to balance this and be on an equal footing. Europe too was undergoing superiority complex where the nations made it their duty to civilize the uncivilized territories especially in Africa and in Asia.

Unlike the old imperialism, which did not go beyond trade and where the European traders respected the local rulers especially in Asia and along African coast, the new imperialism was characterized by subjugation and alienation of land. They took over political leadership and transformed the social and religious foundation in the process of colonialism that was to ensue. This imperialism was seen as being as result of the growing economic and social unrest at home. These powers had to acquire colonies to ease pressure at home.

Most of the European powers acquired colonies in Asia and Africa amidst much rivalry amongst them, with some trying to outdo each other to grab the strategically placed territories. The end of the 19^th century would witness each power laying a claim to rich territories; this however would not last long as it would be followed by a haste retreat especially by the empire towards the start of the second quarter of the twentieth century. There are a number of factors that would lead to the initiation of the process of decolonization in both Asia and Africa. These were; changes in economics, ideology, self-determination movements as well as the lackluster support of the public in Europe (Raymond F. Betts, 19).

The post world war two periods saw the rise of two dominant nations; the United States and the Soviet Union. This was a period that was characterized by a raging debate internationally on the legitimacy of colonialism. The United States and the soviet bloc were against colonialism. Their foreign policies especially in Asia and Africa were meant to supplant the predominant authority in these colonies. These powers were on a collision path due to the differences in ideology. Each power was trying to exert a new kind of influence that was against the ideals of colonialism. The United States was spreading capitalism while the Soviet Union was for communism. This meant spreading new ideals that would go against what the colonial powers were seeking to accomplish (Kennedy, Paul, 33).

The post war period also saw the rise of self-determination in the colonies as well as the rise of revolutionary movements. There were also changes in the political scene with mass movement parties becoming the order of the day. Charismatic leaders who were rallying people behind the fight against colonialism had also arose, such leaders as mahatma Gandhi of India and Ho Chi Minh in China. Africa too had its share of these nationalistic leaders. The rise in self-determinism was fueled by bloody wars as the nations braced themselves to free their people from the yoke of colonialism. The European powers could not ignore such forces (Lace, William W, 44).

Economics too were at play. It had become impossible for the colonial powers to hold any colonies. This was exacerbated by the disquiet from the public who had grown tired of paying for colonies that were no longer viable in the economic sense. The huge costs of maintaining colonial territories were having a huge toll in the mother countries and the public was rising against their governments in opposing the colonies. It is the multiplicity of these factors and events that would see the initiation of the decolonization process which kicked off earnestly in Asia then later on in Africa which bore the worst blunt of colonialism. By the end of the third quarter of the 20^th century, colonial occupation had almost come to a close signaling the end of a process that had kicked off over three centuries ago.

 Works cited

Lace, William W. The British Empire: The End of Colonialism. San Diego: Lucent Books, 2000; 44

Kennedy, Paul. Rise and fall of the Great Powers. New York: Random House, 1987.33

Headrick, D. R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the

Nineteenth Century. New York, Oxford University Press. 1981; 19

Raymond F. Betts.Decolonization: The making of a contemporary world. Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. February 2004; 28

 

What is nation building? Mostly the concept refers to the process that is followed in restructuring a country that is not functioning properly as it is expected. A good example is of a country that is trying to improve its economy that has collapsed. The term is also be used to mean constructing a nation using the powers conferred to it by the subject so that it could be politically stable and viable. There are various methods that are used in nation building. Some governments use propagandas while others build infrastructure to bring social integration and harmony as well as economic growth. The term mostly fits to the African nations that are trying to shape their territories newly after colonialists divided them without considering ethnic and other divisions in those regions. Nation building can be either peaceful or violent. The main focus of this paper will be to compare and contrast the two categories.

In normal events, every state should be able to provide for its people and should be able to protect the rights of its citizens. One main problem that government face is the challenge of keeping a stable government face is the challenge of keeping a stable government that is capable of meeting basic standards of its citizens. The failure of the government to provide and protect its citizens is what broods violence. Multi ethnic society is one of the factors that contribute to the violent peace making process. There are various methods that can be used in peaceful nation building for example, the party system and signing mutual agreements with disagreeing parties.

One strategy for promoting peaceful nation building is by inculcating the culture of peace in school. By this way, the future generations will get this culture from their predecessors. The concept of nation building as I mentioned earlier was used in decolonization programs but later it shifted to other aspects of life. It process has been and is still an ongoing process.

Violence in nation building is dangerous (Hippler J.2005; 27-43) It was used in countries like Rwanda, Sudan Somali and other African states like in the case of Rwanda where in a bid to take control in nation building a fight erupted between Tutsi and Hutus. A lot of people were killed especially from the minority Tutsi in 1994 under what is now referred as the Rwandan genocide. This conflict also created the problem of refugees. Many people who were escaping from Rwanda went to the neighboring countries as refugees. Many of them died of cholera, dysentery and other diseases.

Another disadvantage of violent nation building is that human rights are abused. For example, in Sudan and Rwanda many people lost their lives, women were raped while others were held prisoners of war. Even children were conscripted in the army.

Violent nation building has also been witnessed in Darfur region in Western Sudan. The crisis is between two ethnic tribes where one group comprises of Baggagra who are Arabs while the other one is comprised of Zaghawa, Massaleit and Fur who are land tillers unlike Baggara who are camel keepers.

This conflict has been caused by shortage of resources. Baggara tribe started it in 2003 while in search of water in the South confronted the non-Arab communities. The conflict has led to about 450,000 deaths. Many diseases have occurred in the region. A lot of people have been displaced and are now refugees either at home or in the neighboring countries. This violent nation building strategy has led to the disruption of economic social education as well as economic institutions. This is because religious institutions that help in integrating people cannot even conduct their businesses and trade freely as they used before the crisis erupted. It should be known that nations develop because of the peaceful environment that they enjoy at home. This why countries like Rwanda, Uganda and Sudan are among the poorest nations in the world

If you have watched the last king of Scotland film that was released in 2006 then, you can truly see the demerits of using violence as a strategy of nation building. The film is about the rise and fall of Idi Amin as president in 1971 and his fall in 1979.

A violent strategy in search of peace promotes terrorism, smuggling of goods and other illegal businesses are conducted. This happened in Uganda when Amin was in a bid to strengthen his position (Hansen H.B. and Twaddle M. (Eds) 1994; 78-85) He smuggled goods across the border and sold illegal firearms to rebels in southern region of Sudan. President Obote ordered for his house arrest but this idea failed to materialize. Eventually Amin staged a coup when Obote went to Singapore in 1971 to attend a commonwealth meeting. According to the international human rights groups, about hundred thousands to three thousand people were killed. Most of these were from Lango, Acholi and other ethnic communities.

Amin forced Asians out of the country, which he proudly described as ‘black man’s country.’ Though many Ugandans approved the move, their departure had serious impact on sugar and textile industries that closed down. Also educational places that were run by Asians were closed. By 1970s Uganda was in an economical mess and even now it is still trying to recover from the ravages it inherited from the rule of Idi Amin Dada.

On the other hand, peaceful nation building has its merits. It is more recommended than violent one. It happened in Senegal after it become independent in 1960. Senghor who was the president took control over Senegal. He made alliances with the local leaders from various tribes. In this way, he was able to set a stage for his country to develop through his gradual reforms strategy. Africans in Senegal were unified by their strong desire to be independent and were determined to restructure their dilapidated nation soon after the French government moved out. From the independence period, leaders have been trying to promote national loyalty. They used the strategy of ‘ethnic arithmetic’ in translating regional loyalties into national loyalties. This strategy saved people from shedding unnecessary blood after they got their independence (Desmond J. Clark and Roland 1975; 123)

In Tanzania, nation building thrived well without resulting to an armed conflict. This can be attributed to the policies of Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. A close look at the Tanzanian case, one can clearly see that any nation can develop irrespective of its different ethnic backgrounds with various languages. In Tanzania, media and educational systems were employed to inculcate in people the desire to unite for national development as opposed to regional or ethnic lies. Through Nyerere’s administrative skills, Tanzania had peaceful national development strategies and has never witnessed any violent mutiny except a small mutiny that broke out in his army but was suppressed instantly with the help of British troops. Many African leaders did not approve this idea and referred to it as neo colonialism (Zell Hans M. (Ed) 2006; 631)

As we have noted, countries moving from chaos to order takes time to achieve their dream but if they again embark on armed conflict, the nation building process goes back to square one. In a nutshell, nation building means putting all institutions whether economic, political, judicial, social or medical in a unified whole. It is this interrelatedness that creates a fertile ground for national development. This is what has made countries like Senegal and Tanzania to develop while Sudan and Rwanda are economically lagging behind.

 

Reference:

Hippler J. Nation Building: A Key Concept for Peaceful Transformation. Pluto Press.        2005; 27-43

Desmond J. Clark and Roland 1975. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge           University Press.1975; 123.

Hansen H.B. and Twaddle M. (Eds) From Chaos to Order: The Politics of Constitution   Making in Uganda. London: James Currey. 1994; 78-85

Zell Hans M. (Ed). The African Studies Companion: A Guide to Information Sources, 4^th             Edition. United Kingdom. 2006; 631

Since 1968 up to 2001, September 11^th approximately a thousand Americans have been killed through terrorism either at home or abroad. But the climax of terrorism in USA came in 2001 when a series of what seemed to be a well-orchestrated terrorist attacks befell on the Americans. This happened in the morning hours after the terrorists connected with Al-Qaeda network hijacked US passenger airliners and crashed them on various buildings in USA, the world trade centre included. This attack took Americans by surprise and became an awakening call to the Bush’s administration on fighting terrorism. After that attack, of September 11^th the US president Bush, secretary of defense Mr.Rumsfeld and the secretary of state Collin Powel were determined to crush terrorism irrespective of the means to be used. They aimed to destroy terrorists basis, killing or arresting them and even retaliating against other nations that either harbor or support terrorism. This paper will specifically focus on the war against terrorism or what is simply called counter terrorism and will limit its scope to this war only (Strickland R.A., 2004)

After the September 2001 attack, a finger was pointed on American-Arab population in America. A lot of emails, messages, websites as well as secret phone calls were directed on these people with a hate message. Now as a senior counter terrorism official, I would refrain myself from joining the band wagon in this blame game, I would organize various investigation agents like federal investigation bureau (F.B.I) and C.I.A to send agents in these areas to monitor their moves. These people are citizens of America and therefore, any move that is made in fighting terrorism should put into consideration that they have their own rights that must be protected.

I would also try to create informers in their mosques who can help us in gathering any information that could be of importance. As the saying goes, birds of the same feather flock together, it is highly possible that these terrorists would come in these mosques to fulfill their religious aspects of life. I would be very cautious in choosing who could be of help to me. It is true that if you want to catch a thief you use another thief. Thus, by using an Arab in my investigation, I would be in a position to get a lot of information that I need. A civilized society is that which is peaceful and a peaceful environment is an ingredient of development, thus my move would be geared towards creating this society and also preventing future acts of terrorism that might result to unnecessary blood shed as well as life loss.

Though there might be some truth in this tenaciously held belief that American- Arabs might have been responsible, people should know that, there are many who condemn such an act. Others are loyal to the USA government and give so much to this nation and should be protected from any form of unnecessary harassment.

Any American citizen captured in the USA because of terrorism acts should be arrested like any other criminal, locked up until full investigation is done. If the evidence provided points them, then they would be charged for the crime and I would let the law to take its course. If terrorists capture any US citizen, the government would try its best to make sure that these hostages are kept with the right atmosphere by their attackers. I would use any possible means to see that they have been rescued even if it means staging a military operation or through negotiating with the terrorists. I would try to convince Mr. Bush who does not support the idea of negotiating with terrorists the need of doing so if it is the only viable option.

Any American citizen who would fight American force broad should be treated like any other terrorist. He should not be given any privilege that other Americans abroad enjoy. There is no good reason of not killing him or her for he is an obstacle to future peace in the world. But, if it is a foreign national who are fighting American forces abroad, then it should not be forgotten that he or she is fighting for his country. I would order them to be eliminated if and only if they prove to be obstacles to our mission of tracking down our enemies. If any of these subjects are caught, they should be pressed to cough up some information that could help US.

There is nothing wrong with torturing these people if it is done in the name of promoting world peace. It means that if they can afford to block peace builders from executing their missions, then they themselves are the perpetrators and they should be done away with. Even God killed the Philistines who were a threat to the Israelites. God made them to drown so as Israelites could reach to the Promised Land safely. Therefore, I would torture the culprits and even kill them if it is the only solution left in peace promotion (John P. Crank, Patria E. Gregor, 2005)

There are various perspectives of just war, for example there is Christian perspective that holds that war is not good, there is Islamic perspective, which maintains that if war is on religious background, then it is okay. For example, ‘Jihad’ or holy war. There is also what is called Pacifist view, which holds that war should be used as the last option. That is, after all other methods have proved to be futile. A war is said to just if is it is started by a legal entity, if it is fought with an aim of redressing wrongs done or in self-defense and also if it is for re-establishing peace. It should be known that violence leveled should be equivalent to the damage caused by the attackers. The parties to the war should be able to differentiate between combatants and non-combatants for a war to be just (Gunaratna R., 2004)

Counter terrorism can be said to be just if it is fought in a bid to re-establish peace. Also, the belligerents on US side always wear uniform to identify themselves from the innocent un armed citizens, the war is for solving the wrongs that have already been done by the terrorists and finally Also, this war on terror is declared by a legal body. In fact, it is president himself who has the prerogative to declare such a war.

Fighting terrorism can cease to be just if is initiated by unrecognized body, if in its course it is infringing on the rights of innocent people and if it changes its course midstream and becomes a war for promoting one’s national interests as opposed to the search for peace.

Anti- Americanism (Byman D. 2006) can be termed as being opposed or hostile to everything that involves America. It is not something that has taken root in America. It is not as serious as it is in Arab countries. According to Tom Lindbergh, anti-Americanism has not gone to the extent of impeding on its policies. In my opinion, people who glorify terrorism acts and yet they do not take active role in executing them should be held accountable. This is because you cannot judge an act as good if you are not a direct beneficiary of it. By approving these acts they insight violence by giving them moral support. If people are supporting a particular course of action then, it is justified. Thus, by praising terrorism then, terrorists would feel motivated to act more. Therefore, these people should be arrested and be asked to say why they are supporting it.

The US government in dealing with passive terrorism in school and mosques, it encourages the teachers, preachers and other personnel involved to reverse the hate speech that is spread by these institutions. The president of USA; Bush in 2005 did ask students from Arab countries to see America in another light apart from the one that is depicted by prejudiced media in their countries. The US government is also trying to protect charity firms from being abused by terrorists by putting strong government in place, offering financial as well as partner management in charity organizations (Audrey K.C. and Hudes JM. 2004)

The USA Patriot Act, which was passed on October 26, 2001, has significantly reduced the frequency of terrorism attacks in United States of America. The act was passed after the September 11^th attacks. It cannot be said to have been timely timely. The government should have thought of such an act even before the attack. Since it was passed, the number of terrorism acts especially on the American soil has gone down. If I were in the congress, I would not vote the act as it is because currently it allows detectives to intercept phone calls, emails and accessing personal financial records thus you cannot conduct your private affairs. Again the act has authorized indefinite detention of immigrants. Finally, the law enforcement officers search homes and businesses without seeking permission from the owners. If these flaws were corrected, then I would vote for it.

 Reference:

 

Strickland R.A., 2004. Restorative Justice. New York: Peter Lang.

John P. Crank, Patria E. Gregor, 2005. Counter-Terrorism After 9/11: Justice, Security      and Ethics Reconsidered. Lexis Nexas, Cincinnati ISBN: 159359572

Gunaratna R., 2004. The Changing Face of Terrorism. Singapore: Eastern University         Press.

Audrey K.C. and Hudes JM. 2004. Attacking Terrorism: Elements of A Grand Strategy. Washington: Georgetown University Press.

Byman D. 2006. 2005 Deadly Connection: States that Sponsor Terrorism. New York:       Cambridge and Brookings.

In 1877, the United States of America was reeling under the pressure and aftermath of reconstruction. Relations between the northern and the southern states had become polarized and ethnic animosity was rife. America, from this period to date has gone through both smooth and turbulent times. Majority of those historical events have played a role in shaping the United States seen today.

The westward migration can be traced to the period when the colonists began their settlement in America, it continued later and for long and has been the source of many queries from many historians who have wondered what it is that drew people west. The answers lie in the immense opportunities available in the west then. The later part of the 19^th century was characterized by conflicts between farmers and ranchers especially after the passing of the 1862 Homestead Act that was seeking to give land to those who were devoted to tilling it. It had taken a racial turn especially with the entrance of foreigners in the migration. Americans of Africa descent were not given land in the prime territories in addition to the other marginalized groups such as Mexicans. Many of the people were hoping to try their luck in the west rather than in the rapidly expanding and industrializing East. There was over a 20% population increase by 1900.

Increase in population had been fuelled by immigration of more than 9 million people from across the globe. This was unlike before where majority of immigrant were drawn from Western Europe. This resulted to a cause for alarm by most of Americans who believed that the increase in civil and in industrial strife exhibited then was as a result of these immigrants. Laws were enacted to restrict this. An example is the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.By 1902;Chinese were indefinitely banned from immigrating to America.

As far as industrialization is concerned, east was the first to industrialize. This process started with the mechanization of farming. By the close of the 19^th century, the United States was fourth in manufacturing but the process speeded up in the 20^th century that saw it become the largest industrialized nation in the world. This process was fuelled by presidents who supported business, which accelerated wealth accumulation in the gilded age.

Wealth amassed during this period would be invested heavily in the extraction of natural resources. Discovery of telephone by Graham Bell and the light bulb by Edison in 1879 was the first sign that industrialization was being felt in the households.

Major figures and industrialists started to emerge in the various industries. The likes of, Morgan J.P. John, John Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie, representing the key industries such as banking, steel industry and in the oil industry.

The expansion of railroad facilitated the growth of industries in America as well as the cheap labor from Chinese immigrants.

From the close of the 19^th century, the United States initiated a mission of expansionism. This period is known as the Age of Imperialism. This is a period that would witness the acquisition of territories. This would range from Puerto-rico in 1898, Guam, Cuba American Samoa, U.S Virgin Islands, and Panama Canal Zone among others. By the turn of the 20^th century the United States had acquired huge territories that would have likened it to the British Empire. The post second world war period also witnessed rapid economic and political imperialism that characterized the cold war period. This was a period that saw the United States interfere in the internal politics of various nations as it sought to put a stop the spread of communism.

The United States involvement in the Second World War had been rather tentative; it had stuck to its isolationist policy only to make an entry later. The end of the war would see the emergence of the Soviet Union and the United States as the two super powers. The rivalry between there nations would see the start of cold war, a war of words over differences in ideology.

Before the Second World War, the United States had taken an isolationist stance as it was reeling from the effects of the great depression that almost brought the nation to its knees. However, a period characterized by prosperity was to resume after the Second World War that would uplift it to the position of a superpower in rivalry of with the Soviet Union. The cold war ended in the early 1990s with the crumble of the soviet bloc.

The period of the cold war was characterized by the disrespect of civil rights in the foreign countries by the United States. This was so in most countries in Asia and Africa. This is also a period that would see the rise of enactment of civil rights legislation to out low any forms of discrimination. It was a culmination of century’s efforts to curb discrimination based on gender, class and race. A fight initiated by women during the rise of feminism in the early part of the century.

Throughout the history of the United States, in all those economic hurdles, conservatism has triumphed, as Gabriel Kolko puts it (1977). The United States has pursued the ideals of capitalism based on laissez faire. There has been minimal involvement of the government in business. Although progressivism was taking root the early part of the 20^th century, laissez faire survived and has continued to do so. The destiny of the economy through out the history of the United States remains in the hands of market forces.

Reference

Gabriel Kolko, 1977. The triumph of conservatism: a re interpretation of American history, 1900-1916. The free press.

A group refers to a collection of individuals with a common objective that they wish to accomplish together. It could also mean two or more people gathered with a common purpose or interest in a cognitive, affective and social interchange in single or repeated encounters sufficient for participants to develop impressions of one another. Norms are set and collective functioning and goals are developed for their collective activity. A sense of cohesion is developed and they consider themselves distinct from other collectives. (Hartford, 1972).

Human beings are social beings who can use others as mirrors to their own experiences, feelings or behavior. Groups can influence behavior as they create their own styles or specific culture. Family, peers and teachers shape our goals, values, perceptions of life and sense of self. They can enhance or instill new beliefs. They increase one’s self-awareness, change attitudes as well as interpersonal competence. (Toseland W. & Rivas F, 2001)

Group influence is affected by the amount of attachment one has to the other members, values and norms in the group status of the group, rewards and sanctions for conformity and nonconformity and the importance of the group to the member. (Hartford, 1972).

Therapy groups are organized for the purpose of correcting specific behavioral or emotional disorder that impedes a person’s function. In a group therapy, focus is given to unconscious factors, one’s past and personality change (Seligman M. & Marshak E,  1990)

Group formation ensures that goals are set through interactions. The leader considers the needs of each member and integrates them. Service goals, individual goals may be exposed or internalized and considered secret while others may be unconscious, for instance seeking acceptance. All members create goals.

In today’s world individualism is emphasized and groups are important in helping to build relationships group therapy is important on issues like intimacy and people affect each others behavior over time. (Rutan S. & Stone N, 2001)

Specific and clearly defined purpose increases their self-awareness and can identify external distortions causing destructions in their lives.

There are various mechanisms of change in the group context. Members can use imitation where they observe how others react, solve problems and use new styles and then incorporate them. Identification, which entails taking aspects of others to change ones perceptions and group’s cohesiveness. Members could see aspects in fellow members, which they may not be aware of. Internalization deals with a shift in the psychic structure to produce a detailed examination and reexamination of emotional interactions. It is facilitated by confrontation, clarification, interpretation and a sense of belonging. (Felix F. & Laroca D, 1986).

Through repeated experience one learns all that is expected of them. Interpretation should not be made absolute but should be posed to them for further contemplation.

Phases of group treatment.

In the engagement stage bonding is based on common experience and understanding. It begins at a superficial level where there is anxiety for some members but after bonding is accomplished feelings of interconnectedness develop. Anxiety is reduced through self-disclosure and commitment.

The differentiation stage entails the movement to a sense of self where people attempt to demonstrate their own identity. There is more tension in this phase and the need to cooperatively explore each member differences arises. Support and constructive confrontation as the group grows to maturity is important.

The interpersonal or work stage increases focus on individual members. Self-exploration and self-revelation are more common and members explore themselves more deeply. Consequently bonding intensifies.

In the termination stage disengagement is delicate and if this stage is not executed it may undo much of the work accomplished in a group.

According toHartford’s Group Phases include the Pregroup Phases when the idea to start a group is birthed. It could be Private where an idea exists in the mind of the organizer and it determines the potential composition of the group. There is no blueprint for the group yet

It becomes Public when decision to have group is disseminated. Flyers can be used or contacting agencies to refer clients. In notify candidates one finds out why people want to join and allow prospects to decide if group would benefit them.

Decisions are made on time, location and size.

The Convening stage is the beginning of group formation and leaders meet with potential members to discuss their expectations. An assessment of whether people think their expectations will be met is done. Leaders can observe interactions between members.

In the group formation phase people must be significant to one another and discern common purposes or goals as a group. Collectivity is highly enhanced. Time duration for this may vary.

The Phase of integration, disintegration or reintegration is around the third or fourth meeting. Negative social and emotional behavior rises and conflicts may appear.

Original leadership roles may shift as people become more comfortable with themselves.

Members try to establish their identities

Termination Phases.

In pretermination stage people prepare for the end. Evaluation of group accomplishments is done. Work is done through difficulties as members face the realization of the end. Parties could be organized for the last session. Some members may reduce their interactions at this point by showing up late, not showing up at all, or by decreasing their involvement in the group

Separation and anxiety increase as members find themselves wondering why they did not perform, as they ought. They may blame others for not participating. Things to be examined include the meaning of the group to each member, relation to group purposes, meaning of the worker and group aspects.

According to Rutan’s Group Phases include the formative Phase where members struggle to create a group that feels safe enough for them to participate in the therapeutic process. They fear being controlled and engulfed and dependency on the group is observed.

There is a struggle with autonomy and acceptance and it is a period of regression

How they handle this can tell the therapist a lot about past and current relationships and defenses typically used by each member. Advice giving is offered. Stories brought up in the group in this phase symbolize feelings members have in the group. Transition into second phase occurs when trust and acceptance is felt by members

In the reactive Phase individuality of each member becomes apparent.

There is a power struggle as members try to free themselves from the control they feel the group has over them. They try to figure out how to maintain their identity while belonging to the group. Norms are tested and hostility increases.

As the group development commences members tend to lose their identity to conform to the before becoming autonomous to step back into self and learn to relate to others.

Mature Phase entails the group working together towards set goals

Feelings can be expressed openly or confidently and members can assume a variety of roles. Conflicts and different points of view can be tolerated

Members become aware of patterns by reflecting on similar experiences in the group. The leader is no longer seen as omnipotent as members have a more realistic view of him or her.

The Termination stage escalates at half waypoint where members contemplate of the group coming to an end

Definition of group treatment as a modality.

Group therapy plays an important role in the treatment of eating disorders at all levels of care: in initial psycho education, as an adjunct to in-hospital management, in outpatient treatment, or as the central modality in a day hospital program. Group therapy offers the patient acceptance and reinforcement by peers in a treatment setting that is both effective and time-efficient for the clinician

Group work is characterized by diversity, which spans from client populations, client problems, and social work settings (Fink A, 1978).  Groups change with the needs of the times. In a group, members get support and acceptance.  Clients with eating disorders face rejection but group therapy provides them with support. In a positive group setting, members provide acceptance while supporting and encouraging necessary changes.  Here members learn of trust, compassion and empathy.  Interpersonal relationships enhance communication in groups

In a group, members get support and acceptance.  Clients with eating disorders face rejection but group therapy provides them with support. In a positive group setting, members provide acceptance while supporting and encouraging necessary changes.  Here members learn of trust, compassion and empathy.  Interpersonal relationships enhance communication in groups

Group therapy enables clients to gain a more realistic view of situations through group experience.  Universality is a key element in group therapy.  It is a tremendous relief to know there are others like you.  Groups show clients they are not alone as they share feelings and experiences.  All group members are unique.  Clients all have different views and different levels of comprehension.  .  In eating disorder groups the common trait of having an eating disorder is the desire to be special and unique.  The eating disorder itself makes group members feel special.  In a group, members share interests and they share burdens.

In eating disorder groups, anorexics have poorer outcomes then bulimics.  Anorexics tend to be more rigid, withdrawn, anxious, and have extreme difficulty in identifying and expressing feelings.

Groups could be segregated or homogeneous or mixed heterogeneous groups.  Segregated or homogeneous groups have with people with the same disorder.  Segregating enhances similarities among members and they relate to each other easily.  Experts feel it is best not to mix groups.  Heterogeneous or mixed groups can be therapeutic.  In anorexic groups members are egocentric, hypersensitive and anxiety may be high making group interaction impossible.  Anorexics may be competitive.  Each wants to have been the one to eat the least, weigh the least, and be the best anorexic.  Mixed groups might sometimes be a better alternative. (Bryant-Jeffries Richard, 2006)

Mixed or Heterogeneous Groups Anorexic, bulemic and binge eating groups are prevalent especially in inpatient treatments facilities.  All clients have the common characteristics of self-destructive relationships with food and their bodies.  Combining disorders can be difficult for the leader, but if the group works well benefits are remarkable.  Hearing the painful journey of an anorexic can be helpful for the treatment of a bulemic or vice versa.  Clients within the group look at each other’s strengths and weaknesses and see themselves in each other. A support group usually doesn’t provide therapy, however, provides education and support. (Carolyn C, 1999)

The Role of the Leader in the Group Milieu

The leader in a group has diverse roles to play. He or she encourages members to interact and is viewed as an expert, authority figure and change agent who assesses members’ problems and develops goals. He or she should treat each member in a unique manner. The role of the leader is predominant and there is need to conceptualize the leadership role. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).  Group development is a priority and it requires all members to participate. Determining emerging roles and exploiting them is necessary for group development. People with positive view of relationships will be important. Confrontation may be appropriate in the differentiation stage. Interpretation should not be done at this stage and leaders should look for themes of commonality. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).

Leaders play the role of facilitating the process by which members test themselves and establish their roles while participating in direction of the group. Roles taken may be an initiator, antagonist, clown, synthesizer, mediator, supporter, helper, teacher and attacker

 

Role of the Client in the Group Milieu

During Individuation members become increasingly receptive to psychological exploration that may be intense and painful but will end up being extremely satisfying.

There is need to realize the connections between psychological events and eating behavior. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).  

During Intimacy members become aware of roles played in the group that mirror outside relationships and experience with new behaviors learned in the group.

(Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992). During Mutuality members experience and acknowledge that they can be important to someone else and accept responsibility for their interactions with others. The meaning of closeness is explored.

Members should participate in group discussion and agree to rules created either by leader or group as a whole. Contracts could be suggested when working with groups that have an eating disorder. Members may agree to maintain a certain weight while in the group and there is need to bond with therapist as well as group members.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Toseland W. & Rivas F. 2001. An Introduction to Group Work Practice 4^th Ed. Allyn & Bacon,Needham Heights,MA

Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R. 1992. Group psychotherapy for eating disorders.  American Psychiatric Press.WashingtonDC

HartfordE.  1972. Groups in social work.ColumbiaUniversityPress. New York,NY

Seligman M. & Marshak E.  1990. Group Psychotherapy Interventions with Special Populations. Allyn & Bacon Needham Heights,MA

Rutan S. & Stone N. 2001. Psychodynamic group psychotherapy 3^rd Ed. TheGuilford Press.New York,NY

Felix F. & Laroca D. 1986. Eating Disorders: Effective Care and Treatment Ishiyaku Euro America, Inc. Tokyo,Japan.

Bryant-Jeffries Richard. 2006. Counseling for eating disorders in women: person-centered dialogues.OxfordSeattle: Volume: xiii, 173.

Costin Carolyn. 1999. The eating disorder source book: a comprehensive guide to the causes, treatments and prevention of eating disorders, 2nd Edition.Los Angeles,CA,LowellHouse

Arthur Fink.1978. The Field of Social Work, 7th Edition. NY by Holt, Rinehart & Winston

Fascism refers to an authoritarian political ideology that puts national interests ahead of individual and social interests. The term originated inItalywhen it was coined by Benito Mussolini who was an Italian dictator. It was originally applied to the Italian political movement that was in power as from 1922-1943. This movement was steered by Mussolini himself. As a political ideology, fascism seeks to develop economic, cultural and social life of a country basing these on extreme senses of national belongings. Fascism also refers to suppressing or down playing all liberal ideas like democracy, elections, and freedom as well as individual rights. Basically, it seeks to destroy all forms of democracy: Legislature and liberal ideas. As such, the concept is highly connected with right-wing fanaticism, violence, racism and authoritarianism. Etymologically, the term comes from an Italian word ‘fascio’which stands for “union” or “league”.

Fascist movement emerged in European nations. They were also there in former colonial or overseas European territories in the 20^th century. These movements mainly focused and took advantage on the social and political uncertainty that occurred after the wake of the First World War in 1919. It also surfaced itself in Italy during the Russian revolution of 1917. Giovanni Gentile in his book the encyclopedia Italiana, fascism holds that, “The state not only is authority which governs and molds individual wills with laws and values of spiritual life, but it is also a power which makes its will to prevail abroad”. Simply put, fascism is characterized as one party rule, centralized control of financial and industrial institutions by the government. It is also refers to militant nationalism and as that, it advocates for socialism.

The development of fascism ideology in Europe(Roger G. 1991) was greatly influenced by the romantic rebellion against enlightment philosophies in the 19^th and 20^th century. There are various characteristics of fascism: media is sometimes either directly or indirectly controlled by the government in influencing the public opinion, Censorship was very common during war time and is the motivational tools that was used by these governments. Most countries that supported fascism were obsessed with the national security and they highly valued militarism. Military funding exceeded the funding on domestic agenda. Another feature of fascist government was that there was male domination and things like divorce, homosexuality and abortion are suppressed in the name of preserving the family institutions. In fascism, religion and government are inter-woven in that the government uses the most common religions in the country as a tool to manipulate the public opinion of the country. Fascism is also a belief that labor power consolidation is a threat to its existence. Therefore, labor unions are either banned or suppressed. Fascism does not support higher education, Professorship and other academic achievers are either arrested or censored. Finally in fascism governments, elections are fraudulent sometimes they are manipulated or opposition members are assassinated.

As noted above, the best fascist economy if ever there was one was achieved by Mussolini’s regime who said that free markets and freedom must cease to be historical functions. According to Mussolini’s the world is not just the material world. Fascism (Sowett P.S., 2001) grew inItalybecause of two movements: that is, nationalism and syndicalism. The syndicalists maintained that economic institutions should be manned by groups representing workers in various fields especially in crafts and industries while on the other hand, the nationalists after the First World War incorporated the idea of class struggle in the national struggle. Italians believed that a proletarian nation likeItalyhad to unite all its classes for it to win a significant share in the world’s wealth. Before the war, Mussolini was a syndicalist but in the First World War period, he turned to be a nationalist.

From 1922 to 1925, his government pursued a laissez-faire economic policy under his liberal finance minister. Taxes and regulations were reduced and trade restrictions also were reduced. Competition in businesses was promoted but his failure to protect businesses and to provide business subsidy led to alienation of businesses by some of his leaders. For these reasons, he was forced to resign.

Some nations were favored by this nationalism while others were highly affected. In fact only inItalyand inGermanythat fascism succeeded .One good thing about fascism is that crime is significantly reduced because of a very large police force but some people argue that there is no democracy and liberty thus making these governments to lack support from the masses.

During war periods, fascism works well because at this time people need to be directed but when there is no crisis or tension, people prefer democratic leadership. Fascism had greatly influenced many states in the Middle East, Asia Latin America andSouth Africaand is blamed for political crises which were in some countries ofEurope. These governments had already been weakened by political and ideological differences were much affected by the economic depression (Schapiro J. Salaryn, 1949)

Fascism creates gangs of men as a result of its policy to increase the police force. It was against the development of literature, culture and art. This is what resulted to authoritarianism. Another defect of fascism is the way it glorified war and violence. It should be known that no society that is based on fear can survive. It is bound to collapse at any time or to stage a revolution. Fascists created false ideas and believe in national unity. Only among decadent people that regimes of force can survive. It cannot be supported because of the way it criticized those who are educated on the ground that they talked too much without caring about their role. It was the negation of democracy and liberalism. These parties were voted in by many people but never cared for these people. They hold that the masses should always follow their leader.

Fascism thrived inEuropein 1930s as the world entered the world war period. Fascism inGermanywas being used by Hitler who as from 1933 was a German chancellor. After getting to power, Hitler transformed his country in to a war machine. He influenced other European countries to join and to support his forces.

Fascism is great and that is why every country needs nationalism. Hitler was able to exercise his powers and tactics in winning the fight. Fascism is capable of keeping crime level down and keeps the economy stable unlike communism that destroys work incentives. People feel less motivated to work hard because the fruits of their labor are shared amongst all people. Nobody can work extra hard if the returns are equal to all. This is one of the reasons that greatly contributed to the collapse of these governments.

Nazism which was closely related to fascism (Stanley P.G., 1995) had two features which when combined made became destructive and barbaric. These were the Nazi’s myth of natural greatness which held that the country was destined to great power. The other one was the blended romantic ideas with pseudo scientific theories of race natural selection and genetics led to the desire of all German population within other nations. These caused the eruption of unprecedented war accompanied with inhumanity and violence.

In Nazi’s bid to create and make German a new empire, about 6 million people during the 1940s were killed and still others were killed in various conflicts that erupted. The Nazi’s eliminated the disabled, religious minorities and homosexuals thus they failed to protect their citizens. This made people to suffer greatly. Again fascism failed to bring to an end apathy that had developed in its regime for example Mussolini’s regime was unable to fight corruption and violence in his country. He also failed to create a stable political process that would have solved some of the social problems. It was also unable to address the problems thatItalywas facing but instead ledItalyto the war that it was not well prepared for (Brooks T.R., 2002)

After the world war one, the economies of almost all the European nations were destabilized even those that never participated in the war. Fascism become popular inEuropeespecially it attracted attention in papers and radio news though the movement never threatened the existing political system. This took place inCzechoslovakia,Denmark,England,Holland,IcelandNorway,SwedenandSwitzerlandbut it did not materialize as there was no enough electoral support.

Fascism was established inSpain,Portugal,Austria, France Hungary andRomaniabut was never given the atmosphere it would have required in order for it to take shape. It was denied political space which it needed to unveil itself. These movements were resisted by strong coalitions from the radical right- wing. These forces either destroyed or assimilated them thus making conservative regimes to acquire fascism characters so as to become popular.

InSpainthe fascist movement was slowed down and weakened by lack of coherent nationalist historical tradition. In Portugal Antonio de Olivera Salazar; a dictator was the leader of the right- wing authoritarian government in the 1930s that had character traits of a fascist nation. His conservative behavior was not supported by national syndicalism movement. The movement wantedPortugalto be radically transformed by fascism. This never happened because its leader Rolao Preto was sent to exile in 1934 and the national syndicalism was banned.

InAustriafascism never developed roots though Marxist force and Quasi-fascist polarized the politics ofAustria. InFrance, theVichygovernment ensured that the fascist got no support but in other parts Nazi were supported by fascists thoughGermanynever gave these radical forces the full power they needed.

Due to the cooperation, competition and interaction between fascism and other sections of right hybrid movements, regimes were born. Though fascism protects capitalism from collapsing, sometimes it pursues goals that do not go in line with capitalism principles. Fascism is an independent body that has its own social base and has a relationship with elites and the non-fascist right that is complex.

Fascism seeks to acquire power and is not willing to share it with others. This is why a very strong government employs many policemen and a very strong army so that they could hold on to power tightly. As a national movement and regime, it organizes movement for all citizens so as to bring people from all walks of life together to promote integration and control while at the sometime suppressing any resistance that might be there. Fascism never allows class struggle and workers unions as they are threats to national security and unity (Paxton R.O., 2004)

They way fascists approach politics is both populistic, People were united by this movement such that any aggressor who would appear on the way was perceived as an enemy. Sometimes fascism can be said to be good as it brings some form of ideological solidarity and positive change across boundaries but on the other hand it is not gender sensitive as it employs males and leave women out. This creates male dominated societies with little or no respect for women.

Fascism embraces the social Darwinian principle of survival or the fittest. This makes nations to make unwarranted advances against other peaceful nations. Military operations take place and the final results are the imperialism and deaths. By fascism rejecting intelligence and reasoning, they ignorantly destroy the existing social order. This trend is seen in the leadership of Friedrich Nietzsche, Thomas Carlyle and Wagner Richard.

The modern fascism cannot compare with that in the past that was being used by dictators like Hitler and Mussolini. Today’s governments though they use violence, they employ it effectively and not openly. We can’t forget the role fascism played in 20^th centuryEurope in an attempt to bring into shape the literal and non-humanistic perspective of modern technology. We have seen that even though Hitler and Mussolini who were the key players in the field of fascism died, its principles and ideologies are still in use nowadays. The modern version of fascism is referred to as neo-fascism.

References:

Schapiro J. Salaryn, 1949. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism: Social Forces in         English and France (1815-1870)New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Roger G. 1991. The Nature of Fascism.New York: St Martins Press.

StanleyP.G., 1995. A History of Fascism 1914-45.Madison Wisc:University ofWisconsin Press

Paxton R.O.2004. The Anatomy of Fascism.New York. ISBN: 1400040949

Brooks T.R., 2002 The War North of Rome (June 1944 -May 1945) ISBN O785814000

Sowett P.S., 2001 The Italian Army (1943-1945) Osprey Pub Company.