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White light black rain

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The white light black rain film offers an unflinching and graphical look at the realities of the nuclear warfare through the eyes of its survivors as well as the American men who aided in the bomb mission atNagasakiandHiroshima. This film focuses on interviews that were done with four Americans and four Japanese survivors of the 1945 atomic bombing. There was great human cost after 210,000 people died during the atomic attacks and others died because of injuries. The film is quite disturbing as we see the ghastly injuries and burns of the survivors whom plastic surgery was to be carried out on. The film is a clear reminder of how war can affect the lives of many and how merciless people who are avenging can be. If the young people who were actually interviewed on the streets ofHiroshimaare actually anything to go by, then it is evident that most young people were not taught the importance of these dates when the tragedy happened. This is a film depicting exceptional human resilience of the Japanese and their unimaginable suffering. The indelible accounts of this incident are showed with drawings and survivor paintings as well as photographs and historical footage. As one of the survivor in the film remarked, “I’m here to make sure it never happens again”.  This is a film that stands to be a powerful warning to the current nations that have watched this film and use nuclear weapons. It is therefore imperative to give some immense details on some of the ethical issues that were portrayed by this film after the aftermath of the tragedy.

The two bombs which were dropped inJapanin August of the year 1945 had a vast destructive force that stretched the limits of what any human can ever imagine in her or his life. Approximately 210,000 people were immediately killed (BBC, 2007). Others died as a result of illnesses as well as injuries incurred that were caused by the radioactive black rain that occurred afterwards (BBC, 2007). The destruction and injuries from the bombs were as a result of the immense blast, the thermal radiation that caused burns as well as producing fires and the nuclear radiation that resulted in injury and deaths. The survivors were denied treatments by theUSdoctors though most of them were brought toAmericato undergo the plastic surgery (Susan, 1997, pp. 117). A child who was treated for burns looked so awful that he begged the doctors to go ahead and kill him because he could not stand how he was looking. Some of the images are extremely difficult to stare at unless one is a pathologist. The film dramatizes the intense feeling of getting stuck via an intensive device by merciless people who care less about your feelings.

The devastating impact of both bombs shown in the film depended largely on the energy that was released during the explosion that caused fires, destructive pressures and immense local exposure of radiations that will have impact to the future generations who were born with defects.

Were there any signs of the genuine practice of ethics?  DidAmericaever consider the term ethics as rational as it should be when they were carrying out these evil acts? On great issues that are concerned with mankind, there ought to be affirmative law as well as ethics to make a common cause as well as nuclear weapons because of the destructive effects they have. Human society should be driven by both moral and ethical norms based on wisdom and learn to practice them.

Treating others just as you would like to be treated is an ethical foundation that Americans should have cultivated. It is inconsistent with ethical and moral wisdom for Americans to have violated this universal and ancient valid principle of treating others as they would like to be treated in a fair way without endangering the lives of the innocent people. Nations should never forget the awesome and immense destructive power of nuclear devices. Moral, legal and ethical issues continue to loom over survivors and all those Japanese who were affected.  What they face is nuclear deterrence which has its reliance on horrific annihilation of big numbers of people as well as destruction of the environment rendering it to be quite hostile to the generations that are to be blessed with life. Deterrence is usually designed in a way that it is intended to threaten the mass and violate most of the humanitarian law. The nuclear war against the Japanese was unethical. It violated human rights, killed innocent people and affected generations to come who are born with defects. The doctors failing to attend to the affected were unethical and increased the pain of those who were affected.

Though this act brought an end to the Second World War it had more losses than benefits. According to the utilitarian theory, this shows that the war was unethical and immoral and should have never happened in the first place. The bombing ofHiroshimaandNagasakibrought many questions that were ethically related (David, 2003).  Can killing of thousands of innocent people be considered ethical and justified? DidUSAever benefit from this attack?  Was denying the survivors medical benefits ethical? The only advantage to this strategy of using nuclear weapon is that it minimized the civilian casualties but ethically, it was all wrong.

It was morally, militarily and ethical unjustifiable to bomb cities ofNagasakiandHiroshima. Careful observation of this film and all the events that led to the bombings allows the viewer to realize the major reason behind the atrocity. TheUSAanger towards the Japanese acts incapacitated their moral and ethical reasoning. Under no circumstances can indiscriminately getting rid of the Japanese be condoned or termed as ethical. This is completely unethical.

According to theUSAmilitary personnel who were interviewed, the atomic bombs were militarily unethical and unnecessary (BBC, 2007) thus we can depict that the decision to go ahead and drop the atomic bomb was more political than military. The decision to use nuclear weapons in order to make war is not ethical at any circumstance. It cannot be justified or defended. This film shows the aftermath of horror in bothNagasakiandHiroshimaand helps in comprehension of the absolute destruction and tragedy that the nuclear weapons brought to the fruition. How couldUSAbe that unethical and immoral not to only drop one bomb but two? Why would anyone order the murder of so many lives with a devastating weapon?

Though it can be argued from theUSAstandpoint that it isJapanthat started the war, it does not justify the ethical grounds that led to these inhuman acts. The dropping of the bomb inHiroshimaalone killed about 90,000 to 140, 0000 civilians who were totally innocent. Killing of innocent civilians to get back at the leaders can never be justified. Though, America was interested in saving the lives of its people which is ethical, the revenge for all the humiliation that the Japanese had caused when they bombed Pearl Harbor as well as portray their power was unethical and unjustified. The other benefit though quite distant and illogical is that this film depicts the horrific power that is in the nuclear devices.

After that instance there has been no further use of nuclear devices in war. If this incident had never happened, then probably, there would have never been an occurrence of the same issue. The Americans made it clear that they had a super weapon and ought to surrender instantly. How can you depict your strength at the expense of innocent lives and claim you know anything to do with morals and ethics? Crimes against humanity can never be ethical. The actions of theUSAwere barbaric and nothing close to ethics and in future they should consider choosing between intellectual use of the scientific conquests and mass killing. In fact the use of the barbarous weapons at bothNagasakiandHiroshimahad no material assistance or gain to theUSAsince the Japanese were already defeated and the only thingUSAwas after is revenge.. Whatever anybody would judge the principle of war ethics, the surprise bombing of these two cities were morally wrong since it ended up killing innocent lives.

Utilitarianism which is an ethical theory declares on what should be good to the majority (Douglas 1982, pp. 189-231).  The ethical rationale in use of nuclear weapons comprises of two utilitarian considerations. One is there are no other reasonable options and the second is that use of nuclear weapons usually does more good as compared to harm.  In this case the atomic bombs did more harm in killing innocent lives and to an extent it also did good in saving the lives of people of American people.

It is patent that to analyze the ethical concept in this scenario is quite complicated and has no direct answer but the fact is,  no matter the dimension you look at it, the nuclear and atomic bomb use is unethical and immoral as innocent people end up dying and no one stands to gain much. This is a detailed film with an emotional setting that is worth watching in order to analyze the ethical perspectives. However, watching this film will prove that there was nothing ethical with the war as the only thing depicted is human suffering and pain as well as torture. It is the highest rate of inhumanity on mankind.

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Organizational Ethics

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Ethics and values are central in any organization. Values are those integral things that are crucial to people. Ethics refers to philosophical science that bases its reasoning on wrongness and rightness of human actions (Dinesh, 2007, pp.1). Ethics refers to values and beliefs of the society and individuals. Professional values are the motivating factors that do appeal to people as far as job selection is concerned. Professional ethics is based on morality that does influence how people handle their people as well as business. The base of professional values is formed from the influence of personality. Individual values come from work experiences, personal satisfaction and future objectives. As a former employee of Janssen Pharmaceutics organization, I have learnt a lot to do with the organization of the company. It is therefore imperative to analyze my personal values and ethics, mission statement, personal code of ethics and Janssen Pharmaceutics culture, values, mission and vision statement and other beneficial factors that are theory related.

Personal values, value statements and mission statement

Values are usually qualities and traits that represent one’s priorities and driving forces (Susan, 2010).  Values consist of all the things that have happened in life and include the influence of peers, family, parents, religious affiliation, education and others. Rational people recognize the environmental influences as well as identity hence develop a concise, clear and meaningful beliefs and values. When in an organization, one usually brings out the immense held beliefs and values to the entire organization. The value statements define how the people behave towards each other in an institution, family, organization and company. They are the statements on how organization does value its suppliers, customers and the entire community. For any one to make it in leadership, they are always governed by some certain personal ethical principles and values.  The following are some of my values: I am open minded and ready to admit my mistakes, honest, intelligent, fulfills commitments, compassionate, respectful, responsible and ready to face challenges, ambitious, loyal, credible, innovative, competent, efficient, empathetic, influencing, optimistic, flexible and dependable.

The mission statement usually articulates the mission of the firm as well as defining issues that are quite critical in order to gain success (Schweitzer & Bert, 2006, 10-99). The issues usually vary according to the firm and can either be financial metrics or philanthropic accomplishments for example meeting the growth target for assets or clients under management. Building a mission statement is not only about pursuing wealth but will be meant to help my clients to achieve planned objectives thus fulfilling the professional goals to which I take pride in.

My mission is to recall where I will be and have been through maintenance of positive relationships with friends, workers and family. I will choose the ethical way through maintaining personal commitments to integrity and honesty. To find peace with myself by inward insight by using my heart in order to guide my desires and dreams as well as my mind in pursing knowledge and creating balance in my obligations. To content in my environs in order to realize where security is situated in my life and build a dedicated reputation to each goal I pursue as I enjoy each moment in looking for happiness, love and laughter each day.  I am a good communicator and will challenge myself to utilize the gift in delivering effectual messages to others. I lend people my voice as well as craft their ideologies in order to motivate other people to act. I see what makes others not succeed and remove common obstacles as I enjoy setting the stage and stock fires. I am empathetic and this helps me to enable others. I give back to the society what I have gotten. I am here because I improve the lives of those I meet with and this is my measure.

Personal code of ethics

Personal code of ethics states the philosophies and ideas that are of essence to life. A code of ethics encourages one to continue and carry on with their routine work. It plays a vital role in enhancing the ethical questioning in organizations (Painter & Mollie, 2010, pp. 265-279).

My personal code of ethics is as follows:

  1. Competent- I will be competent in all that I do to achieve the highest success and help others to achieve it.
  2. Integrity- I will portray the highest rational and reasoning base in my career giving to the society what I got and doing it all in an open critical mind
  3. Attitude- I will always maintain an affirmative attitude, always be loyal, humble, respectful and I will never be arrogant
  4. Caring- I will help others and always be fair and considerate and never ridicule or hurt others intentionally.
  5. Excellence- I will be the best at everything that I do and will never accept mediocrity or result into a procrastination attitude.
  6. Open minded- I will always be innovative and give others a chance to present their ideas in every decision that I make. I will aim not only at making profit but also making sure everybody is happy and is developing professionally.

Janssen Pharmaceutics values, Vision and mission statement, culture and code of ethics

 

Given the high reliability degree that is expected in any pharmaceutical company, Janssen has maintained its effectiveness through its innovative structure and has proven equipments and systems that are essential in ensuring there is maximum effectiveness and productivity in order to retain a competitive advantage. It is governed by firm values, missions and code of ethics (Kath, 2010).

Janssen is focused and its main values are to dedicate themselves in helping the society with the best medical care. It has ethical values that enable them to be passionate and exclusive in offering medical help on mental health and offering medication in order to treat bipolar, schizophrenia, bipolar mania and any irritability that is related to autistic disorder. The mission of Janssen is to place the patients at the forefront in everything that they do through customer focus, organizational leadership, and process excellence.

Their vision entails making sure that they continue to offer and deliver some innovative products and deepen their partnerships with the healthcare professionals, caregivers and the patients within the precincts of the mental health society (Janssen, 2009).  Their values enable them to keep in contact with the society offering help to them on any questions that is related to their products.

They have a dedicated culture to ensure that the society is free from mental sickness. Their other missions is to find solutions on treatment as well as prevention of fungal, mould and termite damage to various significant sites of global heritage in areas like India. They encourage innovation as well as discovery of trendy and new solutions (Janssen, 2008).

Their quality mission statement is to make sure that active pharmaceuticals that are manufactures on any sites that do conform to all the requirements of their customers as well as the regulatory bodies for example theUSAfood and Drug Administration and to all the corporate standards (Janssen pharmaceuticals, 2010). They aim to have zero complains from the customers and to produce safe products. In order to achieve their goals, the yearly management meeting in maintaining their mission statement sets crucial targets in the organization that form as the base for all annual objectives. Each employee at Janssen has a role in contribution of their specific roles in order to attain effectual quality standards.

Their major mission is in playing a constructive role and to deal with healthcare costs by offering their customers with cost effective, innovative services and products to enhance quality care as well as patient outcomes.

Their ethical code is based on integrity and since they are under Johnson and Johnson medical, they have come up with a rational code of ethics to enable them prosper in their mission. It is intended to give complement to their Credo by offering more peculiar standards of conduct as well as behavior by pharmacists who are responsible in development.  Their ethical code describes all the principles that do guide their ethical decisions in ensuring there is safe use of the products to the best interest of the society. They always place the well being of the society and the patients first by balancing the benefits as well as the risks and ensure that the patients and the people who use their products get the maximum consideration.

It is also their responsibility in helping get access of the products in the places they have been developed. Moreover, it is their responsibility to apply all the values as well as judgments on the conduct, design, interpretation and analysis of all the clinical results and studies. They always adhere to all the principles of efficient pharmacy practice and ensure that they are comprehensive, accurate, and fair, balanced in order to enable all the informed risk and benefits assessments of the products. They also comprehend the values that are divergent across all cultures and in adaptation of behaviors that are up to their ethical principles.

Janssen is one of the major and the fastest growing pharmaceuticals and has developed a great and unique value based and performance driven culture. Its culture is also highly consultative as well as relationship based and they hold high ethical values in their team work.

Janssen’s social responsibilities

Janssen has a range of activities that comprise of developmental studies and drug formulations. Janssen Pharmaceutical is dedicated to the environment and won an award in the environmental excellence (Scryve, 2010). It does an incredible job in outlining the environmental accomplishments, goals, and areas to improve in their annual report. This ensures that they have a great impact as far as social responsibility is concerned. Despite participating in EPA and Green Power Partnerships programs in order to reduce the waste products, they maintain a wonderful policy of the environment in its offices and facilities. They make some charitable contributions to organizations that are non-profit and encourage volunteerism of the employees in order to be involved in the local activities. They are also committed in reduction of usage of the raw materials and increase the efficiency of product manufacturing.

They always fulfill their social responsibilities that do comprise of production of high and effective medicine as well as offering sincere services and acting ethically and fairly in enhancement of progress to all involved parties. The company promotes education and health, protection of the environment, charity and public welfare under their principle of being responsible to the society. It has a Social Responsibility program that aims at ‘Caring for the future’ (Hellenic Network, 2007) and contributing all its efforts in creating a healthy, happy and safe future to all people. They also offer drug and health care to remote villages.

Janssen’s ethical analysis

Janssen which employs over 17, 000 employees globally in 46 countries has very firm ethical grounds (Janssen pharmaceutical, 2010). Janssen has a firm ethical base that entails and focuses on the health of the patients. They make sure that their products are up to date and effective and also competent in the market. They have immense ethical values that guide them in ensuring that they get positive feedback from the consumers.

Janssen’s training program

Janssen has a training program that is based on prevention program. It has adolescent, mental health and children’s’ program whose main objective is to prevent, diagnose, and give therapy to children and adolescents through offering relevant information to teachers, parents and the media (Hellenic Networks, 2007).They offer educational programs as well as support them in an aid to help and work in conjunction with the care givers in offering effective medical care.

Strengths and weaknesses of Janssen Company

Janssen which is a top 10 company in theUKhas numerous strengths based on their firm mission, vision and code of ethics. They have gained customer acceptance because of their effectiveness and are reliable. Their strength does lie in what they value most and that is customers, integrity, innovation, performance and people. This has enabled them to be effective and reduce errors in their work.

Conclusion

Just like most companies, Janssen pharmaceutical has been governed with ethical values that have enabled them to be innovative and successful. The company is generally reflective of what every successful company should entail. Their ethical values are governed and centered on people and the utilitarian theory of happiness. They make sure that every customer is satisfied with their work thus reducing complains and ineffectiveness. They have a moral conduct that is governed with firm values, missions and code of ethics.

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Hispanic Americans

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Abstract

In order to identify the political, social, religious, economic, linguistic and familial conventions as well as statuses of four Hispanic Americans groups; the following groups have been chosen: Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and South and Central Americans. Each of the group has a rich culture though they have been placed under the same category of Hispanic Americans because of their language. These groups do share the Spanish language but have a divergent origin and dialect.

 

 

Over the last 30 years, the Hispanic populace has gotten a tremendous growth inAmerica. They comprise of around 11% of the American population (Ann & Ruben, n.d).

The approximate number of Hispanics living in theUSAin the year 2008 was about 46.9 million thus making the Hispanics the vastest ethnic group (U.S Census Bureau, 2009). Hispanic is the term that was used by U.S federal government in the year 1970 in order to offer a denominator to a diverse and a large population that connects with the Spanish language and culture from the Spanish countries. It is therefore imperative to discuss at length some of the Hispanic groups, their political, linguistic, religious, economic, social and other rational statuses as well as the major differences and similarities among the four Hispanic groups.

The term Latino Americans or Hispanics is a term that is used to classify a diverse population that does share a common language though divergent in many ways. Language is one thing that they have in common since all of them communicate in Spanish language (Richard, 2006).  The Hispanics have a close family group that is knit together. Their family unit does not only include the children and the parents but also the extended family. Religion has also played a vast role among the Hispanics. More than 90% are Roman Catholics (Ann & Ruben, n.d). Puerto Rican, Mexicans, South and Central Americans have a lot in common though they remain to be different and separate ethnically.  Most of them come to theUSAbecause of political asylum.  Others were just escaping the economic and social conditions. It is estimated that by the year 2050 one quarter of the populace will be Hispanics (Hispanic American diversity 2, n.d).

There are numerous factors that do hinder them to participate politically and develop a unified bloc in voting. One of the factors is the youth. The younger a group is the less likely they will be in a position to be active in politics (Maria- Cristina, 1996). The median age of the Hispanic populace is 25.5 and some groups are quite young (Maria- Cristina, 1996). However though the Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans are the largest group, the Cubans have great levels of political participation since their average years is 35 while that of Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans is 20 and 21 (Maria- Cristina, 1996). The other factor that hinders them politically is the fact that most of them are not yetUSAcitizens and the final factor is poverty. Poverty hinders them to participate in political processes.

The language of Mexican Americans is a mixture of Spanish and English and sometimes it is referred to as the Spanglish. Most of the Mexican Americans have managed to retain their language to date (Linn & George, n.d). In the census that was done in the year 2000, it revealed that approximately 75% of Mexican Americans spoke Spanish (Hispanic American Diversity 2, n.d).  The Mexican Americans unlike the Cuban Americans have no many entrepreneurship or vast ethnic economy inMiami.  The Mexican Americans have made little progress as far as moving from the immigrant status to the mainstream status is concerned because of discrimination and poor systems of education (Alba, 2006).

Politically, the Mexican Americans were quite active as far as the Civil Rights movement that was led byMendozawas concerned. Socially, the Mexican Americans want to achieve the American dream. Educationally, most of them do not go past high school regardless of the generation.

Most of the Puerto Ricans happen to be Roman Catholics and are mixed with divergent denominations of the protestant faiths. They speak in Castillian English (Hispanic American Diversity 2, n.d). English is taught in most elementary schools but Spanish remains to be the primary language amongPuerto Rico. Puerto Rico has its own constitution, and governor who is answerable to the executive authority ofUSA. Due to the commonwealth status, all the Puerto Ricans happen to beUSAcitizens. As far as politics are concerned there has always been controversy on whether or not they should maintain the relationship of the commonwealth in theUSAand go ahead to advocate for the entireUnited Statesor better still fight for their independence. Their assimilation has been both successful though distraught with catastrophes. Most of the Puerto Ricans still struggle with predicaments for example crime, drugs, lack of opportunities in education and breakdown of their familial structures (Green, n.d).

The future ofPuerto Ricopolitical status is a burning issue .There are three options as far as politics is concerned. One of them is commonwealth which is their current status that was developed in the year 1952; the second is statehood where Puerto Rico hopes to be a state of theUSAand finally the independence where it will become an independent nation and be in control of its all affairs (Puerto Rico, n.d).

The Puerto Ricans are Catholics though their rituals, beliefs as well as practices stray against the beliefs of Catholicism. Despite the rich values that are offered by saints, some of them still believe in evil eye, faith healing as well as witchcraft (Puerto Ricans, n.d). They value ceremonies and celebrate political and religious holidays with great interest. They have a rich historical background of folk music that incorporates the Spanish andCaribbeaninfluence.

The Census that was done in the year 1960 revealed that there were 79,000 Cuban Americans inUSA(Richard, 2006). By the year 2000, the number had grown tremendously to 1.4 million (Richard, 2006). The Cuban Americans exiled fromCaribbeanIslandafter revolution of 1959 that changedFloridaandMiamiinto what many have presumed to be theLatin America’s capital.  The Cuban Americans have changed most of the things inMiamiand one of it being reversing the progression of assuming the societal culture and American culture. They have however been faced with racism as well as alienation because of being inUSA. Compared with other Hispanic groups, the Cuban Americans are doing quite well. They have a high rate of college completion as compared to other groups. Most of the Cuban immigrants are well educated and have managerial as well as professional backgrounds thus have a vast economic success than others. They have a strong force as far as politics is concerned inMiami. Their Cuban American National Foundation takes an immense anti-Castro position (Richard, 2006). They have gone ahead to oppose proposals byUSAto come up with a flexible policy on them. They have come to accept the Anglo culture and have maintained their Spanish language.

The Central and South Americans as well as the Cuban Americans have the highest number of college graduates among all the Hispanic groups thus they have the lowest rates of poverty.   The Central and South Americans have no any cohesive group and have a diverse language as well as color gradient. Their social class also differ greatly (Richard, 2006). They face vast levels of unemployment as compared to the whites (Richard, 2006) though they are better educated as compared to most of the Hispanic groups. In future they might come to retain their independence like the Cubans and establish an economic base.

Puerto Rican Americans, Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans and South and Central Americans have a distinct culture that is rich in some familial ties though each has been grouped under Hispanic Americans due to their language. Though they do share the Spanish language, all of them have a divergent origin and dialect. Most of them are Roman Catholics and each ethnic group has divergent religious beliefs.  Cuban Americans have made a vast progress as far as political and social front is concerned while the Puerto Ricans have made a lot of impact in their homes as far as economy is concerned. While most of the groups have rejected assimilation into the culture ofUSA, others have gone ahead to embrace it.

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Law and Society

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Law is part of the society. It is an instrument of social change. Law causes changes through institutionalization and internalization of behaviors patterns. Through institutionalization of behaviors pattern, law establishes norm and provide its enforcement. In the course of internalization of a pattern of behaviors, law incorporates value or values implicit in a law.

Law also seeks to bring social change through deliberate, rational and conscious effort. It is focused on altering specific behavior already existing in certain society. Through clearly stating intentions and means of instrumentation and enforcement as well as sanctions, law is able to bring social change. Law also aims at rectifying, improving, controlling, ameliorating practices and behaviors which are already existing in a specific society.  Additionally, law enjoys some advantages. It emanates from legitimate source usually the authority, and it is considered as biding force of law by the society. Such a situation enables law to bring social changes. It protect the helpless from the society unfair practices, control associations power, bring changes in the market place, determine the future course of the society and how people should relate in the society. Thus it is the law which causes social changes as the law seeks to rectify, guide and change pattern of behaviors in the society. (Vago 2009)

It should be noted that condition present in a particular situation greatly determines effectiveness of law as an instrument of change. A law likely to be successful in causing social changes is associated with the following: First, it originates from prestigious and authoritative source. Secondly, its rationale is introduced in terms that are compatible with existing values. Thirdly, such a law makes reference to other communities or countries where such a law is in effect. Fourth, law enforcers are be committed to the change the law is intended for to cause. Fifth, change intended by the law is short term base. Sixth, the law enforcement includes both positive and negative sanctions. Finally, law enforcement should be reasonable both in its sanctions and protection of the rights of one who stands to lose when such a law is violated. Law as a mechanism of change is also subject to amount of available information in terms of a given legislation, ruling or decision. Ignorance about a law, although not an excuse for disobedience, limits effectiveness of law in causing social change. Where law is ambiguous multiple interpretations may arise and limits laws effectiveness. Thus law needs to be clear. (Vago 2009)

Q2A

Response

Society resistance to changes is caused by a number of factors. These factors include:

Social factors

This is first category of factors that may act as barrier to social change. Vested interests of individuals or groups who may fear losing power, wealth or prestige in case a proposed law is accepted may lobby against such changes. Social class is another social factor which acts as barrier to change. This is evident in society characterized by rigid class and caste patterns where people are expected to take and obey orders from those in superior positions of power. The attempt to bring changes that will infringe prerogatives of the superiors by the lower socioeconomic groups is likely to be opposed. Ideological resistance also plays a big role e.g. ideology about birth control and pregnancy from religious groups has been opposing laws to legalize abortion and control birth rate. Sometimes, individuals organize themselves to oppose changes incase where there is widespread individual resistance. (Vago 2009)

 

 

Psychological factors

Habit is one of barrier to change. Once a person is accustomed to certain behavior and become comfortable in it, it will drive him/her in resisting any proposal to change from such a habit. The collective habits of the society i.e. customs, are likely to pose resistance to change. Motivation forces such as religious beliefs, culture, and desire for prestige, economic gain, and association may motivate people against changes. Ignorance also plays a big part as far as resistance to changes is concerned. This will add to non compliance. Selective perception about law by the people will also influence how they accept certain change. If intended changes are not related to people interests, consistent with their attitudes, not in line with their beliefs and values, then this will be rejected.  Morals observed by people will also drive them to resisting changes which are repugnant to what is considered right. (Vago 2009)

Cultural factors

Change which is likely to threaten long established practices is likely to face resistance. Cultural factors such as belief and values will drive people to resisting changes away from such believes and values. Fatalistic outlook where it is believed that man life is determined by Supreme Being(s) may results to resistance to change. Ethnocentrism is also likely to cause people to resist proposed changes from other groups.  Incompatibilities of proposed change in terms of culture will also results into some resistance. (Vago 2009)

Solution

To overcome resistance to change, some steps should be taken. First, it will be imperative to involve all stakeholders when designing a law. This will entails gathering their opinions about proposed change. Educating people about certain change will also play a big role. This will help people understand what the new law means, why such a change, its advantages, and aim of such law. Those proposing for changes should promote democracy and accept the voice of majority. This will help in effecting changes since the majority will be for such changes. (Vago 2009)

Q3A

Response

Legal professional can be traced back to Rome. In this authority individuals trained in rhetoric were allowed to argue cases for individuals although not trained in law. These individuals were called orator and never used to take fees. Later on came the jurists who were individuals with law knowledge to whom people went to seek legal opinions. It was until Imperial Period the lawyers started to practice law as paying job and it was also during this time schools of law emerged. In Rome this period saw rise of sophisticated legal system which made law profession indispensable. Soon after this period, law became a full time occupation, training schools were established, local professional associations started, national professional associations were established, states licensing laws became a practice in many states and code of ethics to govern lawyers profession were established.(Vago 2009)

Profession of advocates is believed to have emerged in 1200s in England and French. In these two countries practice of law was limited to those approved by judicial officers. The first professional lawyers were judges and trained their successor through apprenticeship. During this time law was taught through the court by barristers who eventually became court lawyers. Barristers led to creation of solicitors whose main work was to prepare cases for trial and handle matters outside the court.  Law had not yet been considered by universities as one of the areas to study. (Vago 2009)

 

This was followed by recognition of law as a subject to be taught in University which was initiated by Oxford and Cambridge University. By 18th century law was a full fledged profession in England. Members to this profession considered it as full-time occupation, schools training on law had also been established, degrees in law were also being offered by universities, and law professional associations had been established in form of guild. Skills on legal procedures and law knowledge became a marketable commodity. Law practice requiring licensing as well as formal code of ethics was also established. Only members to lawyers’ guild could participate in practice of law in royal courts. Training in 18th century was usually informal and through apprenticeship in some countries such as England and USA. However, by19th century law was a formal subject to be taught in university e.g. in Harvard University. By 20th century law was a highly recognized profession and many countries had embraced it. Today, this is a big respected profession guided by a number of ethics and rules and practiced by many qualified professionals. (Vago 2009)

What can be done to heighten the reputations of lawyers?

Of late reputation of this profession has become poor. Many lawyers have been involved in corruption and cheating against their clients. To combat these malpractices, the following steps should be taken. First, lawyers association should establish more stringent rules and punishment including banning those involved in malpractices from practicing this profession. Secondly, government arms should establish checks on practices of the lawyers to protect citizens from being swindled off their money and being misrepresented in their cases. Code of ethics in this profession should be well taught to the trainees and emphasized. Such actions will heighten lawyers’ reputation and eliminate those associated with malpractices.

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The Economic Organization of a P.O.W Camp.

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This article is about social, economic and political organization of the Prisoner of War Camp. Like the outside world, this society P.O.W camps have social institutions, ideas and habits. This organization is of great importance to their present and future existence. Prisoners engage in exchange of goods and services to enhance their material comfort. Prisoners carry out this through small transactions and simple expression of comfort and wants in terms of cigarettes and jam, razor blades and writing paper. Although they carry out this in small scale, it is very important to them (p2).The article also emphasizes on the importance of trade in ensuring that individuals’ preferences are given expressions and comfort increased. P.O.W camp is described as a simple economy. According to Radford, similarity between P.O.W camp economy and outside organization arises from similar stimuli that evoke similar responses. The article reports of trading for food against cigarettes or other food stuff and how cigarettes are used as currency in this P.O.W camps economy trade. In these camps, supplies mainly consisted of rations provided by the detaining power and food parcels donated by the Red Cross. The prisoners also received private parcels such as clothing, toilet requisites and cigarettes. These supplies were equal and regular to all individuals. It is on these commodities that the prisoners traded on. (p3)

A non smoker could give a smoker friend his cigarettes in exchange of a chocolate ration, and other commodities preferred. This trend soon became an accepted custom. Prisoner could go around the camp carrying what he wished to exchange for other goods he needed most. This trend continued to increase and volume of trade grew and rough scales of exchange came into existence e.g. a cigarettes issue was worth several chocolates issues. Eventually lively trade in all commodities was on progress. Relative values of all commodities had also been known. Cigarettes also became the standard of value. Every commodity was then to be measured in term of cigarettes. In the permanent camps, Exchange and Mart notice boards were established where information about goods available for exchange, price (in terms of cigarettes), and room number could be posted. The result of this progress was that cigarettes became a normal currency. (p 4)

However a transit camp was more chaotic and consisted of many markets since prisoners did not have information about goods available for exchange and the room number of the owners. Prices also varied in different camps. Trade secrecy as well as offering reasonable prices was also emphasized by prisoners from various countries. In a permanent camp in Germany, prisoners could leave their surplus goods in shop organized as a public utility to be sold at a price fixed in terms of cigarettes (p5). Eventually prices were fixed by the operations of demand and supply. Some prisoners could also offer services in exchange of cigarettes. This was a labor market at work. Entrepreneurial skills were also present-coffee stall owners who sold tea, coffee at two cigarettes a cup (p6).

Prisoners who traded in food and cigarettes also made some savings in terms of cigarettes. Speculation motives were also evident. The traders could ration cigarettes available and offer them near the next issue where prices were high. Credit was also part of this big trade. This article also reports about how price movements were dependent on cigarettes and food deliveries in the camps. Influx of new prisoners also raised prices. News about war, optimism and pessimism waves also affected prices. The article also report of price fixing activities by medical Officer to control sale of food due to fear that some prisoners may sell too much to detriment of their health. (p8). Public opinion was also evident in this P.O.W camps. Some condemned the trade citing cases of malnutrition to devoted smokers, and frauds and so on. Traders opposed this and termed it as hostility. Generally many felt that just price which was determined by supply and demand for cigarettes and food existed. (p12)

(2). Prisoners in P.O.W camps traded to get rid of surplus commodities of which they did not need in exchange of goods and services which they had a deficit and important for their welfare. Those did not smoke could exchange for food with the smokers.  Comparable to international trade where trade is based on comparative advantage, surplus goods in POW camps was traded in to meet the deficit.

(3). Yes. The Exchange and Mart notice boards and shop which was organized as a public utility offered a market where forces of demand and supply could meet. Through such organization, operations of demand and supply were in operation. Thus market equilibrium was achieved.

(4). The role of cigarette in P.O.W camps.

Cigarette acted as a medium of exchange, unit of account, standard of deferred payment, and also as a store of value. This commodity was homogenous, reasonably durable and portable since it was of convenient size. (P7). According to this article, the value of all commodities available for sale was measured in terms of cigarettes e.g. two cigarettes were comparable to one cup of coffee or tea. In this case cigarettes were used as unit of account.  Prisoners also exchanged their surplus for cigarettes. In this sense cigarettes acted as medium of exchange. In the P.O.W camps, credit facilities were also provided. A prisoner could obtain certain goods in agreement to give certain number of cigarettes in future. Thus cigarettes were used as standard of deferred payment. Finally, cigarettes played the role of store of value. Prisoners who were involved in trade could save part of their income in terms of cigarettes.

(5). Despite cigarettes acting as currency in P.O.W camps, there existed some differences between it and world economy money.  First, the cigarettes had no particular authority of issue.  World economy currencies are usually issued by a certain authority. Cigarettes are a good that can be consumed- by the smoker. The world economy money is usually in form of paper and coins which cannot be consumed in any way.

(6). Supply of cigarettes greatly affected the P.O.W camps economy. When cigarettes supply was low, prices fell and trading declined in volume and vice versa. When supply of cigarettes was high trade volume was also high, prisoner could exchange more goods and services. (p8)

(7). Market is usually formed as various economic agents seek to further their own interests. Economic agents with surpluses exchanges goods and services with economic agents with deficits.  This naturally occurs since economic agents have to meet their needs so as to live. Economic agents will also need to acquire goods and services that will enhance their life and make them more comfortable. Thus market in P.O.W camps economy naturally arises as the prisoners seeks to further their own interests. Non smokers’ interest was to exchange cigarettes for food while smokers’ interest was to exchange food for cigarettes.

P.O.W camps economy is fairly a good organization of the economy. It ensured exchanges of goods and services in this economy. However, this economy organization is not the best way. Using cigarettes as currency was not a good option. Cigarettes are not durable, and are consumer good which threatens its supply. A more durable commodity with a token value could be appropriate.  A coin currency could have been provided by the prison management.

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