Human Rights and Ethics

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The movement on promoting the right’s of women as human rights have gained visibility and achieved a major mainstream status.  The law has been oppressive of women and the emancipation as well as promotion of their interests has been of limited value.  There have been numerous claims that in numerous respects, the law has been inherently male oriented. Most people assert that it had been designed by men in order to serve predominantly on the interests of men and functioned historically in order to maintain male domination and refute to withstand divergent reforms. The inherent bias against the women in law is usually evident in the domestic as well as the international law. This paper will hence analyze various articles and discuss on the role that class, gender, ethnicity as well as locale play as far as women’s rights are concerned. It will give a detailed analysis of the theoretical issues that have been addressed and how reality has made theory in the cases complicated once the reality is taken in full account and the extent at which the authors agree on the points they bring up as well as the recommendations.

The stereotypical image of a woman comes mainly from the modern males who have for a long time dominated most fields in the workforce. Women’s rights have been long neglected and ignored. Women’s rights are usually the freedoms and entitlements that are usually claimed by girls and women of all ages in the society. In some societies, the rights are usually institutionalized and supported by the local custom, law as well as behavior though they are highly suppressed and ignored. Some of the issues that are commonly associated with the notion of women’s rights comprise of the right to bodily autonomy and integrity, to vote, holding the public office, and working, having equal and fair wages, owning property, education and even serve in the military.

In the book “Universal human rights: moral order in a divided world” (David & Mortimer, 2005, pp. 81), Lucinda argues that for a very long time the feminist scholars as well as the human rights agencies and organizations  have worked hard in order to incorporate the rights of women in order to end the oppression of women globally. In the book, Lucinda expresses some feminist concerns. The title itself is controversial as it creates a mental picture on what she is about to say next; are women human. She affirms that women have been long neglected and even excluded from the debate over legal rights and law as well as the international human rights. Also she affirms that women have lacked support of other women thus their opinion and meanings are unlikely to range over the normal basic interests of women. Most people have felt that it is unreasonable for women to be empowered and their interests advanced.

She asserts that the feminist theory commenced in USA with liberal approach then the cultural and finally the gender critiques. She asserts that in order to curb all the worries that feminism brings about; there is a need of a more self conscious pragmatic feminism which is usually more fruitful way of struggling with feminism in order to end patriarchy. She argues that the diversity of the institutional and cultural contexts in which girls and women are oppressed and the diversity of the interests affirmed by girls and women do demand a flexible and a pragmatic approach to the rights of women. This kind of approach is hence suited in promoting the feminist goals as well as respecting the women’s agency in order to determine on the course of their lives.

Lucinda argues that men ought to resolve conflicts on the ethics of justice basis that is usually framed in terms of the individual rights as well as abstract legalistic justice and fairness principles while the women usually resolve the conflicts on ethic of care basis that is usually less adversarial and does embody the principles of maintaining relationships, nurturing as well as community.

In the article “do Muslim women really need saving?  Anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others”, Abu-Lughod (2002, pp. 783), explores on the ethics on the war against terrorism asking on whether or not anthropology which is a field that has been devoted on comprehending as well as dealing with the cultural differences can offer us justifications made for USA intervention in the Afghanistan as far as saving and liberating are concerned.

She affirms that there are patent dangers in reifying culture and creating attractive culture icons for example the Muslim woman over the messy political and historical dynamics. She argues that there should be equality, rights and freedom among the Muslim women. There is a need to work with those women in the situations that are subject to the historical transformation and consider some of the powerful global injustice that have always inflicted them. She deeply analyzes the feminists from the west and those who are concerned about women and the plight of the Muslim women.

Understanding of cultural differences is the main key to being functional in the ever changing world. Lila Abu-Lughod has confronted the western paternalism and has suggested that instead of just trying to force on some values to other people, we ought to endeavor in making the world more just. Is it possible to be a feminist and at the same time not be a western? Lila challenges people to evaluate as well as confront comprehensions on feminism. Do women or feminism have any relevance as far as cross culture is concerned? Lila argues that feminism should not be exclusive to the western cosmopolitanism. However, it is usually a unique form of gender equity that is better comprehend when the westerners reevaluate on their comprehensions of the Muslim culture  as well as the role of the women in that culture.

The author hence argues that the fight against terrorism is also a major fight on the dignity as well as the rights of the women. The platitudes on the plight of the Muslim women have been immensely criticized as being more than just a racist diatribe that is usually used in justifying US intervention in the underlying countries.

The westerners have so many misunderstandings on the purpose of women who cover their heads and are always interpreted as a desire to limit the freedom of women.  This perspective hence ignores on the concept of women who cover themselves as being an Islamic mark of piety and identity.

Abu- Lugod has suggested that though The Taliban’s influence in the Afghanistan has been highly reduced over years, most Muslim women have not rejoiced about it.   This has hence gone right in the face of the simplistic view of the traditions as well as the religion of other cultures. Most people assume that keeping the veil can be out of fear for example because abused wives are always afraid of leaving their husbands.  He adds that this veil usually adds the Muslim women an added ability and mobility to move about in the public places. He affirms that it is not really usually out of fear but about the moral and religious laws of the Muslim people in keeping of women from being seen by some unrelated men.

Abu-Lughod asserts that we ought to accept on the fact that we are all quite different and we all want as well as need divergent things. The reasons why the Muslim women would want to remove the veil can be quite divergent from the reasons of the Western women.  She affirms that people do not need to be just cultural relativists but we ought to have prior knowledge on the histories as well as circumstances that we require in order to comprehend that the veil is usually a social structure. The author also brings the fact that Eastern feminists as well as the western have divergent goals since they are usually come from divergent cultures. She urges all people to unite and be supportive to all feminism. In an attempt to free the women and focus on the forced veiling without having to take into account the true culture relativism, we are hence dividing the world into divergent spheres through recreating geography of west versus East.

Women ought to be respected and understood according to the cultures they are coming from.  The veil should not be seen as a sign of slavery but as a sign of freedom and protection. The women hence need no any saving as they have been saved by their culture.

Sally (2003, pp. 55-76) in her article “human rights law and the demonization of culture”, talks at length on the rights of women in Pakistan. She is in conflict with the rights of women and the Pakistan culture on the issue that concerned raping of a certain woman that had been localized by the local council. She asserts that cultures have no any expansion of capitalism and should not be excused in violating the rights of women. He argues that most anthropologist withhold human rights only in an attempt to embrace and protect the culture.

There are numerous theories of culture that make people act the way they do. The view of culture as integrated, homogenous as well as a consensual system definitely meaning that culture ought to be criticized as well as accepted as a whole. The conception of the culture as being just static tradition is quite fundamental to the contemporary transnational discourse of human rights. Political movements for example the fight against issues to do with female genital mutilation hence reinforce on the notion of culture.  These practices have brought physical and mental suffering and pain to these women and girls’ hence suffering under this practice entails its duty on the women’s sexuality which is restricted and their subordination ensured. The author asserts that the African women have been faced by numerous problems including lack of access to quality education, jobs, adequate food and water and equal inheritance. Struggles against FGM have been conceptualized as being against culture and is quite specific against some of the ancient and harmful traditional practices.

The authors of the three articles have embarked deeply on the role of gender as far as women’s rights are concerned. They all affirm that a gender blind universal perspective is quite common and little has been done in expressing of some of the inequalities that are predominant between both men and women. They reveal that the invisibility of issues to do with gender in all political agendas have huge implications. Women have continually being underestimated and though much have been written on their rights, very little has been done as far as making their rights known and accepted.

In order to counter the blindness, there is hence a need to counter the gender blindness and focus immensely on the rights of women as well as adopt gender lenses in all the dimensions that deals with advocacy, monitoring, planning learning and even reflection. There ought to be some special attention on issues affecting the lives of girls and women in order to come up as well as build affirmative strategies to overcome the social and political differences between both men and women. Gender discrimination has been a rooted problem and is usually seen as something that can never change.  This perspective and attitude hence tends to depoliticize on the gender issues pitting them outside the actual agenda of reflection and political action. In order for women to achieve justice, it is essential for them to be at per with each other and have a firm approach through cultural fundamentalisms.

The three authors have immensely debated on the issues affecting women and the major plights of women. Lucinda argues that women have been denied chances in high positions and the fact that women have been disunited thus discrimination has taken place. Abu-Lughod on the other hand expounds on the rights of Muslim women and the reasons why their dressing code should be respected and not seen as a sign of fear or discrimination.

Sally analyzes on the rights of Pakistan women and how people have used the culture to dehumanize and manipulate women. There is a need for women empowerment in order to correct on the social injustices that have surrounded them. Ethnicity has played a major role too as far as the rights of women are concerned. People coming from various cultural background and ethnicity have a way in which they view the rights of women on the simple concepts of culture.

The locality as well as the class is also another factor that affects the rights of women. As Abu-Lughod asserts, people are different and their localities are also different thus their culture and needs are different and ought to be protected and respected in order to prevent the infringement on the rights of women. Women need to come together to respect and support each other

The reality that is reflected in these cases has made the theory to be more complicated. Most of the content that has been discussed have emphasized on culture in relation to human rights. The theoretical analysis is quite complicated as it almost assumes that one thing has to be given up in order to achieve the concept of human rights among women. Culture has played a major role as far as human rights are concerned and it is imperative that culture and the rights of women be separated in order to achieve balance and stop the issues of discrimination against women.

The three authors have agreed that women’s rights are quite imperative and there is a need to focus on the pressing issues that have so far been a major threat to women’s rights though have been highly ignored.. They have discussed on the issues of culture and how culture have been used to infringe on the rights of women. They all assert that women’s rights should be embarked on and they should be respected irrespective of their cultural background affiliations. Cultures should be seen as a stepping ground for justice and unity and not a source of fear and discrimination.

Women’s rights globally are a crucial indicator in comprehension of the global well being.  Despite numerous successes in empowering of women , there are still numerous issues that are still in existence in all areas of life that range from political, economic as well as cultural.  Most people might think that the women’s rights are just issues in some certain areas for example in Muslim countries. However, research has shown otherwise as this has turned to be a global issue that ought to be addressed.  The importance of women’s rights as well as gender equality ought to be never underestimated as they are equally important people in the society.

Comparison of the BRIC Countries

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“Almost the entire world views the BRIC Countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) as better destinations for investment especially in search of new avenues for economic growth. The four countries are currently the globe’s emerging markets. Being a postgraduate student who is almost graduating and considers building up on my career, the BRICs exhibit themselves as the best destinations and environments with potential success factors for enhancing career wise. Of the four nations, I deem China fit for career development. This calls for the potential differences that settle my interest squarely on China. The differences compare the four countries in political, economical, social and technological aspects as I will argue out on below.

“First, let us have an oversight of some common things that identify each of the BRIC countries. Brazil brags in being among the five most populated nations the world over. It is also positioned the ninth highest GDP worldwide. Russia is ranked seventh of the highest GDP. India on the other hand is fourth highest in the GDP ranking and the second most populated in the world while China is the world’s most populated and ranked fourth highest GDP.

“In respect to career development needs, China exhibits itself as the best destination of all the BRICs as it offers an environment that is accommodation of the aspects in life mentioned above. Politically, it has been stable both in its internal affairs and even external. Its political stability has been of essential contribution towards high living standards for its citizenry as opposed to India and Brazil. China’s policies that govern its revenue collection are favorable for career developments. Besides, the set laws and regulations both in the employment sector and the environment at large are conducive in that they do not suppress career development interests unlike in Russia which is stricter on the foreigners seeking avenues to enhance their careers. For India and Brazil, the laws and regulations employed do not seek to enhance recognition of their education beyond their boundaries. These concerns are essential and dictate the choice of China to pursue development in career among the BRIC nations.

“Trade systems of a country are a reflection of a given country’s political stability and China has been politically stable and not frequent on news regarding political issues or on bad international relationships with other nations. Trade wise, it has kept stability through its diverse trade systems which have been extensive even outside its boundaries. Unlike the other three BRIC countries, China has strong trade ties with many nations and its market is evidently wide across the globe.

“Economically, China is solely dependent on its own and has been growing steadily in its economy. Though Russia is economically fit, it does suffer economically due to its unpredictable population, as well as India and Brazil. None of the BRIC countries has a potential of being a major hub for trade in the world as China. China possesses an economy that is based on its market which is free within the foreign trade regulations compared with the other BRIC nations. China’s economic reforms have also placed it in the best position for career development.

“Through its economic reforms, China displays most realistic and reliable interest rates of the four BRIC countries. This favors investment not only in the foreign market and trade but also in the career development sectors. Foreign exchange rates have also placed China as one of the most profiting nations when the exchanges are based on its currency. This is never seen in the other BRIC nations which have always been left out in the exchange rates markets. Apart from the good exchange rates, inflation is not a serious concern in China’s economic growth as is experienced with the BRIC nations – though to a less extent in Russia.

“In social considerations of the BRIC nations, China has recorded its population as the highest in the world, but this has not been a barrier to any forms of developments. Unlike the other BRIC nations, China has been able to formulate strategies to counteract the same. Health status in China is enhanced with innovations into their rich cultural heritage. In fact, the Chinese have modernized their traditional systems of health practices. Though this appears to be very conservative, India, Brazil and Russia have no innovations in the health sector and they instead rely on China at some point.

“Age distribution among the Chinese is even, ensuring development of good career attitudes through its high population which have created an environment enriched with carrier options and different areas of specialization in opposition to Brazil, India and Russia which have always positioned themselves on their initial specialties. With the high population, safety of the people has been prioritized. Unlike in India with the second largest population in the world, China has boosted its safety measures even in the curricula of most careers to ensure safety for the population. Safety should be emphasized on under all circumstances yet this is not very much considered in the other BRIC countries.

“On the final point, we look into the technological aspect of these four nations and how they are placed into career pursuance. Unlike India and Brazil which rely on the imported technologies, China has gone on its own to invent its unique and automotive devices in major operations, including career development. China is ranked high in technology as compared to the other BRIC nations. The rate of technological change is also high in China, thereby offering the best environment in career development. Apart from that, this comes with a lot of technological incentives which are not available in the other BRIC nations. China therefore is a suitable selection of the BRIC countries for career development.”

Street Gangs

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Street gangs are very prevalent in urban cities today, these gangs cause a state of panic in any society. From Robert Merton’s strain theory these street gangs are striving to achieve goals which are stipulated by the society. The same society has stipulated legitimate ways which are legal and moral means to achieve these goals. In an ideal society these goals  contributes success  which is  denoted by respect, wealth, a good job and a family and the means to achieve  these goals are available through  hard work and patience  in  education and employment.. Merton calls these two the legitimate means to success. However, this is not always the case since these two opportunities or goals are not equally distributed in the society. This creates tension in the society which in return causes a ‘strain’. Instead of joining hands to confront these inequalities, Merton argues that people respond through four ways in order to adapt to these denied opportunities. (Merton 229-241)

According to Merton, the most common  way is  conformity where  people  will do the best  with what is available  and remain positive that  eventually they will meet the societies goals regardless of  whether they achieve them or not. This response is what he calls conformity. Another way of adopting is through innovation .In both ways individuals remains committed to achieving their goals but use different means to achieve that.

Merton argues  that  some  individuals  however resign to the fact that they will never achieve these goals  Merton theorizes that these individuals eventually reject  societies goals  in two ways they may resign to the fact that they may never achieve the  societies prescribed goals but still choose to  commit to the societies s institutions of achievements Alternatively,  there are those who after realizing they may never  achieve societies set goals , become deviants by rejecting society’s institutions all together . Merton  refers to this   response as retreatism   i.e. people who reject both the  means and goals advanced by society .This group  eventually drops out of the society and just like  in innovation they  can choose  deviant  but legal means  like gambling or criminal activities and this is where criminal gangs  who ate very prevalent today are formed.   Since most of these success ideals are very common In urban areas where people are more educated and working in formal employment, its easy to explain why these gangs are more prevalent in urban areas. These gangs are therefore trying to find deferent ways to advance in a society where opportunities are blocked. They adopt a different method in order to achieve their goals and crime happens to be this new path which enables them to pursue these goals. They therefore form their own values and behave as if this is the norm.

To Durkheim deviant behavior such as that observed from street gangs is cased by a state of normlessness.To Durkheim, this occurs when the general rules governing a society break down and thereby people no longer know how to behave with each other. This state of having no norms lead to deviant behavior this is what Durkheim calls anomie. (Durkheim 58)

 

According to Durkheim, society evolves from a simple, non-specialized form, which he refers to as mechanical, toward a highly complex, specialized form, which he refers to as organic.   In the simple  society individuals think and behave the same have the same goals and perform the same work tasks When societies become more complex,  the everything becomes complex, people are no longer close to each other  and also adopt impersonalized social bonds . This leads to a state of anomie whereby norms no longer control the members activities in the society without  roles  the society gets disorganized .Due to the changing conditions in society as  well as adjustment  to the new developments in life  there  to dissatisfaction, conflict, and  eventually this also leads to deviance. Increased levels of anomie lead to crime and it’s this way that the prevalent of criminal gangs can be said to come up. Due to the complex urban life compared to that found in rural areas there are many loop holes that enable gangs to operate.

Functionalist theorists Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton argues that crime plays a very important function n in every society.   In most societies members live individual lives are different from each other join together to condemn and even fight crime which is perceived as a common enemy. This coming together in return allows these people to see that  they have  something in common and in return this brings social; cohesion in the society. Merton observes that crime is important if the society has to progress socially. He argues that the society should not inhibit criminal behavior.The society must be free and allow criminals to act in their hurting behavior and in return, this allows the wise to act in defense of the society. This way the wise will device ways of countering the criminals behavior and which are new and progressive and this saves the society from being stagnant.

According to Merton, crime is a normal aspect of any society, however he does not suggest that crime is necessary in order for a society to progress. However he argues that due to the social structure which is riddled with inequalities when it comes to wealth distribution and available opportunities, crime is required in order to maintain stability due an un equal social structure.

The strain theory has been criticized in that not every member as a criminal gang struggles with life goals. There are instances where rebellious children from well up families who can afford a good education and employment also join these gangs. Durkheim, theory of anomie ignores the fact that crime does not necessarily exist in complex settings. Crime is evident even in the simplest of the societies.

Domestic Violence in India

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Domestic violence is common in every country and cuts across people from all races, cultures, class, age and level of education globally. According Karlekar (1999) Rape and domestic violence accounts for 5% of both physical and non physical ailments among women aged between the ages of 15 to 44 years. Despite the  phenomenal  efforts that have been put up by various agencies such as the united nations, international  non governmental organisations and even other women movements, domestic violence still persists as  a global epidemic and one of the critical areas that need to be tackled especially in relation to women. However this is not to conclude that women are the only victims of domestic violence. Men, children and the aged have also been victims of the same. Domestic violence remains one of the most persistently violated human right that denies the victims especially women dignity, self worth, right to fundamental freedom and even equality. This particular essay will concentrate on domestic violence in India, the various ways in which it is meted to the victims and even how it traverses across various demographics. The essay also looks at a case study in India that caught media attention globally and some of the statistics on domestic violence both in India and globally. In addition the essay looks at some of the advanced definitions of violence and domestic violence and some sociological theories that relate to domestic violence.

       Violence refers to the expression of force either physically or verbally against another person, resulting to pain, injuries or destruction, usually done against ones will. Violence in most case is used as a tool for manipulation the world over. According to the world health organisation (WHO), over 1.6 million people world wide lose their lives to violence. WHO has also rated violence as one of the leading causes of death in people aged between 15 to 44 years. This accounts for 14% of deaths among males and 7 % among females. This is not to forget that  apart from  those people who die from the violence, scores of others are injured, maimed and suffer psychologically from the various forms of violence .Violence has a very negative impact on development of any nation. This is because in the effort to curb violence, resources which could have been used in other development agenda are wasted. Governments trying to curb violence spend resources on law enforcement, health care for those affected, especially in cases where the violence is physical and also in lost productivity still for those maimed due to the violence or even those affected and wasting their lives in prisons.

There are various theories that relate to domestic violence. These incude: Social learning theory; which suggests that violence is transmitted from one generation to the other. People learn from observing behaviours and imitating them. If the behaviour is violent they imitate it and this behaviour is likely to continue. From this theory it is assumed that men learn to be violent through observing   for instance, their parents and since women also observed their mothers being battered and do nothing, then it becomes a cycle. The resource theory by William Goode suggests that since women are more dependent on their spouses economically, they always fear the burden of taking care of the expenses in the absence of their spouses. They are afraid to leave their marriages therefore, since they have very few options and resources to cope once they leave.

Domestic violence also referred to intimate partner  violence(IPV) or  domestic abuse refers to  a pattern of abuse or coercive  behaviour  that is usually perpetrated by  one or both partners who are in an intimate relationship or by one person against a family or house hold  member be in a marriage, family, dating are even a cohabitation setting Usually the aim of the perpetrator is to gain  control  and power over the other person in a  relationship setting. Lisa , Albert and John (2002) defines as domestic violence as a broad range of acts which are interpersonal in nature involving a victim and an offender whereby those involved are related.

Domestic violence  can  take  many forms which could be physical violence, mental  through intimidation and use of threats, verbal  and sexual abuse economic deprivation, emotional through, controlling and domineering the other  person or  psychological  intimidation,isolation,economic control, stalking and even property destruction                                                                                                                                                                 It’s important to note that despite the fact that most studies have found that men inflict injury at highest rates in most of the cases; they also suffer as a result of domestic violence.  De Becker (1997) notes that in most cases men regardless of their age or the part of the world they come from tend to be more violent than women. However it has also been noted that most women engage in gender based violence as a way of self defence. Domestic violence is not only a violation of ones human right  but  has also been rated as alone of the causes of major health problems especially among  women..  Martins (1981) argues that the problem of domestic violence is not necessary as a result of the relationship between a husband and wife but historical attitudes by men towards women and the economy. He specifically notes that the legal and social services are inadequate. He there fore suggests that the police and prosecution in such cases be controlled.

Domestic violence is used to isolate the victim making them helpless especially when they re dependent on the perpetrator. This usually robs the victim their inner strength, feelings of self-worth and even the ability to make personal choices.  In most cases the victims takes the blame and feel that they are the main cause of the abuse. This is mainly why most people prefer not to report such kind of violence. They are not even willing to share it with someone close. Surviving from domestic violence is like walking from a raging fire. Usually the fire will have consumed your home, your life and even how you define yourself. You are left wondering how the fire started in the first place, how it spread and even how you took too long to escape, Mitchell (1999) .This is a key tactic used by the perpetrators of violence as in return they gain power and control. Children on the other end are traumatised by domestic violence and they also feel unsafe and that they are responsible for the abuse. This as explained in the theories this may be replicated in their adult life too. Michael and Sherre (1998) explains that there’s in enough evidence that rigid and harsh child rearing methods produce punitive and authoritarian adults

        Domestic violence is not peculiar to any country but is a recurring phenomenon in the whole world. In the 1970s, women movements caught the world attention by highlighting domestic violence and women’s rights their main concern was wife battery. In the late 1970s statistics have indicated that 248 of every 1,000 females and 76 of every 1,000 males are victims of   domestic violence usually committed by the spouses. Due to the increased awareness of women rights as human rights, and the increase in the number of women movements and  International non governmental organisations.(INGOS)  concerned with  the getting these rights recognised,  this has resulted to gender violence  emerging as a global issue.

Domestic violence has however remained low on the human rights agenda until in the early 80’s despite with the increasing evidence that it was rampant. Putting the concept of domestic violence as a human rights issue is a recent development and translating it into the international legalities and translating it into to programmes and policies at the grassroot level is still a main challenge. It is only after the 1990s when major advancements regarding domestic violence were recognised in the global human rights agenda. Over the last two decades, domestic violence has received increased recognition in most western countries such as the United States of America, Canada and other European countries.

In 1992 a critical step towards recognising domestic violence was made by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) under the general recommendation .The CEDAW submitted that gender based violence which constitutes domestic violence perpetrated on women, constitutes a form of discrimination and could therefore amount to breach of specific CEDAW provisions. This was during their 11th session. In 1993 there was another major development when the United Nations general assembly made a declaration on the elimination of violence against women. The 1995  world conference  for  women  held in Beijing was also a major milestone in the fight against  gender based violence .As a women  rights movement, the Beijing conference for women  developed the Beijing platform for action(BPFA) .This platform set out twelve areas considered  very critical areas of concern as far as women are involved. The (BPFA) is considered one of the most progressive ‘blueprints’ ‘for   for achieving equality for women identified violence against women. Gender based violence was set out as one of the twelve areas of concern and the platform also set out strategies to ensure implementation of the same. This was in a bid to assist governments in implementation. During the Beijing +5 conference held in New York in 2000 the BPFA set out to review the progress of member states and also set out to evaluate its objectives in order to gauge the progress. From this evaluation the BPFA came up with the outcomes document which also outlined more measures meant to address the issue of gender based violence against women. The recognition of gender based violence as gender discrimination therefore is a major milestone in dealing with the vice. The declaration on the elimination of violence against women and the BPFA   provides a point of reference from which strategies to achieve gender based violence free environment could be achieved.

In India domestic violence has taken a very ugly face. It is characterised by simplified  forms of restraining of women  going  to the this  go to the extremes of  abuse, aggression and even severe suppression .Female child survival is also at stake India where efforts are made to prevent the survival of the girl child. This ranges from infanticide  to neglect  to malnourishment rape ,denying girls education, marrying them at a very young age, wife beating to harassing females brides  W. This is usually with the aim t encouraging them commit suicide. These are some of the various ways in which women experience gender violence. In the Indian community men   enjoy absolute power  and privileges .In a family setting they make all decisions and  are also  elevated to a very high position of Annadata or ‘giver of grains’ or Grihakarta   ‘the household authority’. Men have absolute power and authority and are practically worshipped, Ranki (2004). It is therefore easy to understand why domestic violence in this case may not be seen as a problem. This is because men area allowed to control women at every stage of their existence be it as youngsters or adults. The social stigma faced by women in India especially if she goes public about her husband and in-laws also prevents them from reporting the violence to the police.

There is even a myth in India that women were fated to suffer. This therefore makes violence against women a normal occurrence. Women are also forced to maintain a strict dress code whereby they cover their entire body as a way of coercion.  There is also another myth that wife battery is a private matter and this way most Indian women  deny that it exist while they experience it. When they want a divorce there is a high resistance from their families.

Domestic violence against women is the most common in India. This is basically due to the mindset that women are weaker than their male counterparts. Functionalism is a theory that can easily relate to the domestic violence situation in India.  This theory utilises social and cultural traits in explaining how various systems operate. The theory stresses that cultural practices have a psychological and physiological function in any given society. This could be through reduction of fear and anxiety and also satisfying people’s desires. According to Radcliff Brown, all practices that are constituted in a society ultimately contributed   to the maintenance and survival of the whole system. In the India case, this theory will confirm that occurrences in society, domestic violence included, contributes in the survival of the society. As explained below its evident that domestic violence in India is highly influenced by the societal culture and beliefs.

The main reasons for battery of women India range from desire for male children .There are instances where women who do not bear male children are brutally tortured. There are even instances where women’s wombs are ripped open in order to kill the female child encase the woman disagrees to have an abortion voluntarily. This is practiced in rural India. Infertility and not looking after in-laws are also major cause of domestic violence towards women .There have been gruesome reports of young bride being burnt alive or subjected to continuous harassment for not bringing home the amount of demanded dowry. Women are also hit if they suspect their husbands are having extra marital; affairs. In urban setting the case is complicated by the fact that that the women are working as compares to the rural areas where the women are financially independent. Some of the causes of domestic violence include having a better income than the spouse and there is also assault and coercion by the employers through demands for sexual favours. Young widows in India are also subjected to violence where they are accused of their husband’s deaths; they are usually cursed and denied basic necessities like food and clothing. The widows are in some circumstances raped or even molested by the family members and in most cases they are not allowed to remarry.

            It is also important or also note that domestic violence is not only meted to women alone in India but also to men, the elderly and even children. Domestic violence against men has gradually increased in India; however this kind of violence is less frequent.  There was an instance recently when men gathered ain Chandigarh and shimla to voice their opinions on violence being meted on them by women and other family members. This just proves that domestic violence also affects men India albeit in a small scale.

          In terms of numbers, the number of reported cases on domestic violence against children and teens is the second form after violence against women. In rural areas a its usually associated with child labour or punishment for not following family traditions. Girls are the worst affected as they are not supposed to take the place of boys   when a couple  wants  to bear children. The girls are therefore cursed and assaulted for taking the position of the boys. A survey of teens and college students found that rape accounted for 67 percent of sexual assaults in girls. Disabled children are also cursed and mistreated ands there are even cases where poor families sell body organs of retarded children in exchange for money. Domestic violence against old is common when there is need for property. They are usually abused and neglected by the relatives who want to inherit their property and at times they are beaten to death. The scenario is even worse for the elderly women who are more vulnerable to gender violence than their male counterparts. The elderly women become victims of property grabbing, material exploitation and abandonment. This is especially due to the gender discrimination structures that exist. They are isolated, cursed and times even considered as bad omen. Other Forms of Domestic Violence in India include family wars. This is usually over property disputes, religious conflicts that arise during religious ceremonies and even inter caste marriages.   Violence over caste marriages are common in many states like Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh a mong others. There is also mistreatment of domestic servants through overwork, working without pay or even rest. There have also been serious cases which are related to dowry payment.  In dowry related violence there are instances where the brides and wives end up being burnt. This is one type of violence that is particularly common in India. According to a Television broadcast aired in 1993, around 6100 women were killed in one year just because of dowry. In the United Kingdom contracted killers also known as ‘bounty killers are paid large sums of money to track down Asian girls who flee from violent homes and try to take refuge in the women’s safe house (Ranki). The fact that the police force in India comes from the same society which has deep rooted prejudice against women makes it even complicated for the police to tackle domestic violence cases even when they are reported. Rinki notes that the police even have a undisguised contempt for women. The police officers especially from the lower ranks treat women as second class citizens.

The Indian feminist forums and other women movements in India  have also tried to tackle the issues of domestic violence. Since 1990s they were demanding for a civil law on domestic violence. However it was not until the year 2005 when protection of women from domestic violence was enacted. The Lawyers Collective Women’s  Rights Initiative(LCWRI )  sought to clarify what Domestic violence is  but has also taken the fore front  in challenging the  government’s bill on domestic violence  which was circulated on December 11, 2001. Circulation of this bill presented a milestone in the fight of gender based violence although it has been criticised as having dangerous implications to women The Vienna congress on human rights also critically analysed this area.

The Domestic Violence Act 2005 for women empowerment in India marked a very significant attempt in recognising domestic violence as an offence which should be punishable by law. The main beneficiaries are women and children according to section (2a) of the act. The act empowers women to sue a person they are having a domestic relationship with who subjects them to domestic violence. The act has a provision for protection, residence, custody and maintenance orders; in addition it has other relief in favour of domestic violence victims. Children too can sue their parents for any kind of torture.

        In a domestic violence survey conducted in India, whereby 10,000 women were interviewed. The result indicates that 26% of physical violence was experienced in urban areas and 20% rural areas. Psychological torture was at 45% and 51% respectively. (Rinki)  According to Rinki the authors reported that this was ‘just the tip of the iceberg. The Police records in India also indicated that a woman is raped every 34 minutes, molested every 26 minutes, kidnapped every 43 minutes and killed every 93 minutes.

It has been reported that between a quarter and a half of all women have at one point been abused by people they were so close to and between 40% to 70% of females who have been victims of murder have been victims of people they were in intimate with. According to United Nation Population Fund Report two-thirds of married Indian women have been victims of domestic violence. In addition as many as 70 per cent of  women who are already married  and  are between the ages of 15 and 49  have  suffered as a result of rape ,beating or forced sex .The study found that in India, more than 55 percent of the women suffer from domestic violence.

In a 10-country study on women’s health and domestic violence which was conducted by the world health organization WHO, the results indicated that between 15% and 71% of women had reported domestic violence by a partner.  It was also found that every year; about 5,000 women are murdered by family members through honour killings. Women and girls, yet they are widely practiced in many countries   such as India, the Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa.  Worldwide, the research indicated that one in five women had reported sexual abuse as children.

A Case study on domestic violence is the case of Naina Sahni who was killed then burnt by her husband in 1995 in a tandoor, in New Delhi. Naina was killed following a marital dispute and domestic violence meted to her by her husband for suspecting the he had a marital affair .On July 2, 1995,the  body  of Naina Sahni (29) was  discovered burning in a tandoor (a clay oven ) by  police  officers who got  suspicious, when they saw a huge smoke coming  from a hotel . It was alleged that Naina was killed by her  husband Sushil Sharma who was  the Delhi Youth Congress president.

According to the charges, Sharma suspected his wife of infidelity. He believed she had an affair with a fellow classmate and this led to domestic violence and marital discord. On the fateful day, he shot her twice before cutting her body into pieces and tried to burn it in a tandooor and that is when he was caught. Apparently, Naina’s elderly father felt that he was guilty for nor protecting his daughter. 0n 30th march 2004 there was a story in the mid day, a local daily where a young girl was strangled to death by her father at Turbhe for refusing to fetch him water. (Rinki)

        Some of the possible ways of Prevention include; increasing education access and job and opportunities for women and girls .This could help enlighten women on the issue of domestic violence, hence help in preventing it. This is because it would improve their self esteem and also enlighten them on negotiation skills. Gender equity in communities should also be encouraged through community sensitization. Other possible methods would include; educating the various demographics on ways of detecting and handling early signs of domestic violence and also initiate programmes that counsel children who have experienced domestic violence in their families. Mass public education campaigns which would mostly target men and boys who are mostly the perpetrators would be beneficial. These campaigns would also aim at changing the men’s attitudes towards gender inequalities and general violence. Mobilising resources and setting up legal assistance for abused women and also creating awareness among the health workers can help in prevention of domestic violence.

In conclusion Issues of domestic violence continue to struggle when it comes to receiving recognition and even policies that have been formulated have not yet been implemented. There are various efforts that have been put in order to eradicate domestic violence. However this has been a very tough battle, in that domestic violence is still rampant everywhere in the world. There are cases of domestic violence reported on daily basis and this leaves one to wonder if there has been any progress made. This should however not dampen the spirit of the fighters of this evil, since silence would be worse than speaking against domestic violence. There is so much that remains to be done though if these efforts have to succeed. In order to end domestic violence there is need for a social, political, and economic environment that is going to ensure that there is enough support for domestic violence victims and other related activities. Governments also need to put the implementation of the outlined policies to the fore front instead of leaving such massive responsibilities to   women movements to tackle them single headedly. To succeed in eliminating domestic violence, every one must join hands and be part of the solution.

Theories in Rlation to VECO Corporation

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Both non criminal and criminal elites cause great harm to people.  Elite deviance violates the ethical, moral as well as the legal standards for benefits of government and corporate entity. Sociologists argue that elite deviance is usually committed by high ranks of power and causes financial, physical and moral harm.

While we do hear people who are in power ripping off its public and even wiping them financially, elite deviance can tend to be extremely hazardous to the public. In the sociological imagination theory, Mills affirm that one ought to look deep inside oneself in order to help in crucial research problems and so that the social scientists can be able to translate some of the private problems into public issues. This translation hence means that we be in a position to connect the issues we face in our biography to the social institutions.

The sociological imagination theory clearly states that it is usually quite difficult for most of the people in the society to link some of their personal issues to the cultural institutions that they live in. Sociological imagination offers that one possesses the aptitude to look beyond personality and local environment to a wide social structures as well as a relationship between social structure, biography and history.  Sociological imagination does refer to some of the personal issues becoming social and public problems. This generally means that the problems of the people can never be accounted on just the personal level.  Without sociological imagination, people usually end up getting trapped in their familiar worlds and are usually incapable of comprehending the structural and social dimensions of their predicaments.

Social imagination can also be applied in incidents that have reported high rate of crime for example in the scandal of VECO Corporation. Sociological imagination theory in relation to elite crime broadens our understanding on the growing decline of morals and ethics in the leading companies, government agencies as well as the justice system. Social imagination theory does not just focus on the dysfunctional individuals or families but rather the society at large including the elite people.

VECO Corporation in relation to social imagination theory is rational and quite practical on the grounds that the top officials of the company ended up committing elite crimes. The corporation got involved in various elite crimes that comprised of offering bribes to the wall street journal as well as unlawful allocation of money and violation of legal and ethical norms. In discussing the reasons that might have led to these top officials committing crimes, we can use the theory of sociological imagination by Mills. Elite crime is quite serious, costly and lightly punished in the American society (David. 2006). Deviance by the elites does create measurable distrust in the political and economic system which does manifest itself in divergent ways.

Sociology does offer a unique and a peculiar way in explaining what usually happens in the human life and a major distinctive approach into solving some of the human dilemmas. According to Mills, each individual can clearly comprehend their experience as well as gauge their fate by locating themselves within their period. They only become totally aware of life through being aware of circumstances around them. Using the sociological imagination hence means making of rational comparisons of all human experience across time and societies. In discussing the crime that occurred at VECO it is therefore imperative to consider the institution at large, its norms, interactions as well as the policies of the Corporation. The sociological imagination theory as well as the theory of elite deviance relates well with the case study as VECO Corporation was involved in several elite crimes. Sarah Palin was alleged to have been receiving contributions for her major campaigns from the corporation.

She received funds from the senior personnel of VECO Corporation to which the chief executive officer at VECO Corporation agreed to (Benet, 2009). Another crime that the corporation committed was giving of bribes to the Wall Street journal where its representative Don Young was under investigations for having accepted unlawful presents and gratuities. Ted who was also an official in the corporation was also involved in unlawful allocation of funds and accepted all the offenses. The top officials of the company were accused of bribing as well as extortion and hence sentenced to fifteen years in jail.

Sociological imagination in this scenario helps us to see beyond the main qualities which we attribute to the individuals when the society provides just little respite. We need to look beyond these individuals as the main cause and examine their social context which could have led to the crimes that they did. The social issues around the corporation and the trust entrusted to them by the public can be the main cause that led to the crimes they committed. According to the theory, the officials sentenced ought not to be seen generally as criminals but as people who were influenced by their environs. There are various reasons that could have triggered them to commit the crime for example hunger for power, seeking of recognition, greed,  opportunity, lack of moral character and judgment, ignorance and others as they sought to please the public and also because they did not see the main benefits of just adhering to some of the conventional social issues and values. This is a corporation that had a good history which used to deal with oil pipelines and supported the oil industry as well as performing tremendously in the global oil market.

They conserved the environment to show their social responsibility and it is only logical that with such responsibilities there would be misappropriation of funds by the seniors. It is also logical that in trying to create more attention it decided to offer funds to Sarah Palin to run her campaigns and eventually made huge mistakes which it did not target for. Their acts can also be as a result of feelings of powerlessness as they already knew that they occupied positions in which they have been trained in and hence they are interchangeable and replaceable.

This always makes people feel dehumanized since they have no much authority and freedom. Generally this hence could have been as a result of denial of responsibility and victimization as well as greed of higher loyalties. In most instances the organization does influence the workers to commit the deviant acts (David. 2006, pp. 289). Such motivations are usually as a result of alienation which hence makes them to take a cynical approach towards their work.

Conservative measures of crime control for example capital punishment, incarcerations as well as boot camps have done little to eradicate elite crimes. There is therefore a need to radically rethink on the justice system . Social control initiatives and strategies are crucial and quite effective in achieving social justice as well as curbing crime. Braithwaite’s theory (David. 2006, pp. 281) of reintegrative shaming is one of the progressive initiatives that are proposed in order to deal with such elite crimes like the one that happened at VECO.

Such initiatives have the potential of alleviating suffering and pain that is caused by crime. Braithwaite’s treatment of justice, law and crime has a bracing freshness. Braithwaite affirms that elite deviance is usually explained through examining on the role of the actors in an organization which hence shapes their acts (David. 2006).

One of the strategies that could have been used on the officials is shaming them in order to eradicate future occurrences. Reintegrative shaming strengthens the moral bond between offenders and the community in which they come from. Braithwaite suggested two reintegrative processes namely reintegrative shaming and stigmatic shaming. The stigmatic tie would have ruined the ties between the society and the offenders and reintegrative shaming would have brought the offenders back to the society as one of the law abiding citizens. This is a theory that is relevant in this case study as it works as a remedy to curbing cases of crime.

There are various elements that have not been discussed in relation to these theories. The theories have not recommended what should be done in order to prevent or curb the onset of these crimes. They have mostly focused on the definition. The sociological imagination theory for example has focused on definitions and how underprivileged people commit crimes but fails to tell us at length on why elite people might also decide to commit the crimes.

Conclusion

Elite crimes consist of acts that are committed by people and members of the upper classes who do include governmental organizations as well as those who do head the corporate world. Elite crimes are usually committed for a number of reasons. They are usually done for fostering of power, personal gain, profitability or even influence from the organization. They are massively financially harmful to organization as well as individuals. Elite crime is not just prevalent in the corporate world but also civil liberties, Central Intelligence Agency and even the FBI’s. At the center stage was VECO Corporation, a corporation that dealt with oil pipelines, which portrayed the highest level of political corruption. Its leaders were accused of having had perpetrated massive corruption. The leaders pleaded guilty and were sentenced for 15 years in prison.

It is evident that VECO Corporation has been involved in various perceptible elite crimes. The top leaders faced serious corruption allegations.  In order to carry out the entire research, books, videos as well as the internet sources have been used. It is patent from the case study what exactly elite crimes are all about and their effects on individuals as well as companies. Elite crimes have a great adverse effect on businesses and the economy at large. They consist of political corruption just like the one that happened at VECO Corporation. The leaders in the company lacked business ethics and did not use their powers as required and ended up being sentenced for fifteen years.

Leaders need to use the powers and positions entrusted to them in an effective and apparent way to avoid getting themselves as well as their companies in scandals. Effectual leaders ought to be responsible, open minded, involved with the entire community, be in control with finances and be respectful to the rules employed by the company as well as  work on the trust that is entrusted to them in order to avoid disappointing the public.

There is a vast body of evidence on some of the factors that do place people at the risk of committing crimes. Most of the crime theories try to explain the main relationship between criminal behavior and the risk factors. Even in comprehending the extent and range of theoretical understandings as well as explanations of crime. Sociological imagination theory by Mills has discussed extensively on some of the areas that people need to focus on in analyzing crimes. Mills has extensively discussed some of the reasons that people engage in crimes and has made it clear that people ought to look beyond what they can see and focus on in depth information on why scandals do happen. Braithwaite’s theory has offered a remedy in dealing with criminals in order to reform them.

Both sociological imagination theory and Braithwaite’s theory are important in dealing with crime and criminals as they help us to have a deeper analysis of what crime are all about and some of the things that ought to be taken into consideration in evaluation of crimes and criminals. The theories also help us to come up with remedies that are crucial in dealing with future scandals like the one that happened in VECO. In order to prevent as well as curb elite crimes, there is a need to implement strong laws that will act as a lesson to the rest. There is also a need to put in immense policies that every employee will adhere to in order to avoid elite crimes. Finally there is a need to improve communication between the employers and employees in order to ascertain that the employees are motivated and there are no any loopholes to crime.

Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality

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In defining personality as which does constitute distinction of individuals, Hans (2006), established his major theory that is based upon fundamental elements of the inherited characteristics. He divided genetic aspects of personality into three factors namely introversion-extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticism in regard to individual personality as well as the individual specific disposition and character. Hans (2006) contends that the genetic composition of any individual is monumental to overrule other external influences as a major means in which people form their personality. Moreover, he affirms that unique environment and genes are quite imperative though shared environment is not usually that crucial. In analyzing as well as comparing the humanistic and biological approaches to personality one can result to difference in opinions. Abraham Maslow did study the development of personalities based on the human needs. His needs hierarchy portrays the influence of human needs to formations of peoples’ unique and individual personalities. There are some biological factors which does influence formation of one’s personality which usually plays a major role. Through reviewing the relationships that are there between Maslow’s theory and biological factors we will be in a position to see some focused similarities as well as its upcoming. Analyzing some of the main tenets of humanistic theory with some of the biological explanations will help us to be enlightened on different views of every personality theory.

Discussion

Personality is basically defined as the complex of all the attributes which are possessed by individuals and which uniquely defines their temperamental, behavioral, mental and emotional characteristics from the other people (Howard &Miriam, 2008).  Personality psychology on the other hand can be defined as the psychological forces that tend to make individuals unique (Howard and Miriam, 2008). The basic belief of humanistic theories is the fact that people are usually naturally good with their mental and social problems as a result of divergence from their natural tendency. The theory helps to remove stigma during therapy and influence the people to explore on their potentials.

Abraham Maslow (1971), a humanistic psychologist believed that the people are not controlled by the mechanical forces which include the reinforcement and stimuli forces of behaviorism or some unconscious instinctual impulse of the psychoanalysis. He placed his main focus on what people can really do as opposed to their limitations. His hierarchy of needs has established a major precedence on which human interactions can follow so as to make sure that they achieve productive as well as agreeable outcome. The main essence is to actually prepare people for shared existence with themselves and those who are around. The essence of humanistic psychology is usually similar to cognitive psychology as it does acknowledge behavior more than just a stimulus that is determined and hence recognizes perception as the actual essence of actions and behavior. His hierarchy of needs does represent how exactly growth ought to influence formation of personality. He developed his personality theory in relation to the needs of people. It shows the main influences of human needs to formation of their unique personalities.

Maslow reveals to us how exactly he views the entire makeup of personalities. Each stage and need is usually based on a priority. His theory shows us the main influences of people’s needs to their personality. Physiological needs; food, water, clothing, sex, sleep, health and shelter. Coping information is usually needed in order to meet the needs. Security and safety, helping information and a need to feel safe from danger  help an individual to experience life in a better as well as quality way in order to expand on their personality. Living in fear and not meeting safety needs one ends up getting trapped and there is always little room for growth when personality expands one’s experiences. People need a sense of belonging, affection and being part of something thus enlightening information is required in order to fulfill the sense of belonging. The need to be accepted by people, offers one feeling of security which comes in forms of praise, encouragement, support and other virtues thus helping one to build that level of acceptance.

Biological model affirms that our brains, genes as well as hormones are central to our personal development (Howard and Miriam, 2008). The human brain usually consists of more than one hundred neurons and the cortex usually does develop in various stages namely cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, axonal and dendritic growth and finally death that is followed by gliogenesis. Individuals are usually biologically complex and quite unique. Based on the biological perspectives, the physical characteristics are usually central to our major personalities. In contrast, the humanistic psychology usually places a higher emphasis on the spiritual, personal responsibilities as well as self actualization. Humanistic psychology is usually a value orientation which does hold a constructive, hopeful view of the human beings and their main substantial capacity of being self determining. It is usually guided by the conviction that the ethical and intentional values are usually immense psychological forces. The effort hence leads to efforts of enhancing distinctly individual qualities for example creativity, choice as well as the interaction of the mind, body, mind and spirit and the main capacity of being more free, responsible, trustworthy, affirming and aware. Humanistic psychology does acknowledge on the fact that the mind is usually influenced by some determining forces in the unconscious and the society and some of them are usually destructive and negative. It does put emphasis on worthiness and dignity of human beings as well as their conscious capacity in developing self respect as well as competence.

Abraham emphasized on some positive growth factors on the personality development. He states that each individual has unique psychological nature whose structure does comprise of capacities, inherent needs and growth potential. Full development does lead to self actualization.

There are various determinants of personality. Some of the biological factors which do influence formation of personalities comprise of diseases, heredity, brain, physical features, genetics, neurochemical alterations, drugs as well as physiological arousal. Heredity is basically the main transmission of some qualities from the ancestors to the descendants through some mechanisms that lie in the chromosomes of germ cells. Heredity does predispose to some mental, physical as well as emotional states. Generally, psychological and physical characteristics are capable of being transmitted through heredity means.

The other biological determinant is the brain which plays a major role in the shaping of one’s personality (Howard and Miriam, 2008). Depending on one’s brain structure, hence their development of personality. Finally it is the physical features as well as the maturity rate. Individual’s external appearance is a major ingredient of their personality. From a biological base or opinion, personality development is usually primarily governed by the biological maturation of individuals.  To some extent even the environmental influences on individuals’ development are usually viewed under biological characteristics and disposition.

Maslow synthesized vast body of research in relation to human motivation.  Before Maslow, most of the researchers used to focus on some aspects for example achievement, biology as well as power in order to explain what exactly energizes, sustains and directs the human behavior.  Maslow did posit the hierarchy of human needs basing on two groupings namely the deficiency needs as well as the growth needs.  According to him, individuals are always ready to act on their needs only when the deficiency needs are met.  The hierarchy can be used to explain as well as describe the types of information that people seek at different intervals and levels. People at the lowest levels do seek for coping information so as to meet some of their basic needs (Maslow, 1954.  Individuals who are at safety level do require the helping information in order to be assisted to be safe as well as secure. Enlightening information is usually sought by people who do seek to meet their sense of belonging while empowering information is usually sought by the people who are at the most esteem level. Finally people who are in the growth levels of aesthetic, cognitive as well as self actualization do seek the edifying information (Maslow, 1954).

Biological factors are related to some extent with the Maslow’s hierarchy of personality because biological factors for example brains, heredity and physical characteristics are needed during the growth level. All actions including the need for basic needs, security, enlightenment and others are actions and behaviors that are as a result of biological and internal instincts (Freud, 1990.).  For example in the cognitive level (Heider, 1958) which requires knowledge and understanding, obviously the biological factors are paramount.

Humanistic theories of personality do represent an affirmative view of human behavior. Personality is usually defined as the organized as well as the dynamic set of various characteristics which are possessed by people and which influences their cognitions, behavior as well as their motivations. Humanistic psychology does emphasize that people do have a free will and do play active role in the determining of how exactly they tend to behave. Humanistic psychology usually focuses on the subjective experience of individuals as opposed to definitive and forced factors which determine behavior. Maslow does believe that all people who are interested in growing ought to move towards the self actualization level of happiness and satisfaction. The psychological perspectives on development of personality do remain influential which comprises of humanistic perspective, psyodynamic and existential perspectives, cognitive, socioculture and behavioral perspective.

Biological factors to an extent are different or incompatible with humanistic theories and perspective.  Human perspective and theories do focus on self thus one can choose their own actions as well as behaviors rather than having to react to biological rein forcers and stimuli.  Biological factors on the other hand are quite different from humanistic perspectives as they relate to the genes and the brain which are internal and thus people have no control over.  Psychology is usually based on theories which help us to decide exactly what to observe. The humanistic theories do follow the belief that everybody is good and relies on feelings rather than the thought processes (Dennis & John, 2008, pp. 442). Biological theories on the other hand follow the belief that the genetics do control one’s personality. They do rely on thinking and not necessarily feelings. Therefore the tenets of biological and humanistic theories do differ immensely. Humanist does focus on the present and not the past and believes that everybody has inherent worth. It also asserts that it is only through self knowledge and improvement that one can be actually happy. Biological theorists do believe that the genetic makeup does determine one’s personality. Biological perspectives teach that genes as well as intelligence do determine the personality. Mental disorders as well as temperament are usually believed to be determined by biology (Howard and Miriam, 2008). Humanistic theories are oversimplified while biological factors are usually overcomplicated.

Conclusion

There are various factors that determine our personality. Some of these determinants are either humanistic or biological.  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and humanistic personality’s theory play a major role in the formation of one’s personality and so are the biological factors. Though humanistic and biological theories are opposites, they do comprise of the main essence of personality and the blend between these two theories produces effective results.

The concept of Citizenship

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Citizenship describes the relationship that individuals have with the state. It has been described as being a member of a certain political community, and this is whereby the citizen enjoys the rights and protection of the state and also assumes the duties of membership. Citizens in this regard enjoy all the rights and privileges and also enjoy an equal and legitimate membership to a certain political community .This is unlike slaves, subjects and vassals who are dominated (Van gunstreren, 1994). This aspect by itself gives citizenship characters in that there are certain features and traits that are constituted in order to identify who is a citizen and who is not. Generally citizenship is constituted by  five categories .These include;  having a sense of identity, enjoying certain rights, fulfilling certain  obligations, having   similar interests, being involved in public affairs and accepting the values that the concerned society embraces(Heater ,1990).

Turner (Turner,1993) defines citizenship as ‘set of legal, economic, and cultural practices which define an individual as a competent member of the society’.  To him these practices determine how resources are distributed. From this definition it is evident that the available opportunities in the society and how they are distributed is important in defining citizenship.

Citizenship can be viewed in two dimensions whereby in one case its considered a right .Here citizenship is defined by ones participation in a political community. The second aspect is where citizenship is considered a fulfillment of certain legalities (a legal status) or as a civic duty. Here a citizen is viewed as one who is protected by the law and has a right to claim this protection. Where citizenship is seen as a right, it emphasizes status and individual rights are safeguarded by the constitution. (Kymlicka and Norman, 1994).  In civic republican traditions for example, citizenship is seen as a civic duty, whereby citizenship is viewed in terms of submission of ones interests to the common good of others. Heater identifies status, exercise and conscience as the three components of citizenship. On status he notes that the only individuals recognised by the state are those who have fulfilled all the state requirements. These individuals are connected with the state through a set of rights and regulations. As exercise, he notes that this whereby the needs of the citizens are transformed into rights and this basically broadens the former definition of citizenship. On conscience he notes that this is what convinces individuals that they are citizens of a certain state.

Citizenship has before been understood in different ways and is not widely understood (lister, 1998) .This is because it is both a complex and flexible concept. This is because of the complexity and diversity of most states which might not necessarily share the same views in defining what they deem citizenship to be. The fact that citizenship is also not tangible makes it difficult to construct in peoples minds (Parker, 2003). The concept of globalisation has also complicated the understanding of citizenship in that, it neutralises the ideal of nations and this is basically the underlying factor that defines citizenship (Smith, 1995). Although globalization has had a noticeable impact on citizenship, it is imperative to note that the former has still maintained its  character in that people always identify themselves  more with their countries of origin even when they are in  foreign countries .It is therefore difficult to define citizenship since it may carry different meanings to different people. In other instances it is possible to even find people from the same nation interpreting citizenship differently, Kymlicka argues. In addition citizenship is a hotly contested feature in some countries. This is displayed by the lengths people are willing to go to gain citizenships of certain countries.  For instance some people engage in fake marriages in order to be accorded citizenship.

Citizenship as an identity is assumed whereby it gives individuals in a certain political community a sense of belonging and therefore can identify themselves as  being this and that country’s citizens.  This is marked by the citizens of a particular country having a subjective sense of belonging and according lister, (lister, 1998) this is psychological in that the citizens have embraced the fact that they belong to a certain political community and are distinct by that mere fact. This kind of feeling thereby strengthens social cohesion .Whereby citizenship is defined as a civic duty; it obligates its citizens to serve the community. Here participation is a duty based on having a sense of belonging and a shared commitment and vision of a common good. Citizenship produces identity whereby it is used by individuals to define who they are in terms of their nationalities or where they come from. This identity is seen as exclusive and geographically defined. Here the nation or the state forms the basis of defining citizenship. If the nation or the state is there then citizens are there and with the states absence then there is a feeling being in a state of   having no identity as in the case of slaves, aliens and asylum seekers. The nation hereby validates the citizenship and gives one the identity. Citizenship produces identity in that it is difficult to understand the individual as a citizen but as a nation (Jasmine, 2008).Citizenship is also seen as a sense of belonging that one feels towards their community through involvement. This is about the stakes and ties that are nurtured at basic level which is from the community extending to the nation. The idea of citizenship thereby helps individuals in defining their identities. According to perker (Perker, 2003) if the three aspects that define citizenship are incorporated they help in shaping its identity. This is owing to the fact that the rights that citizens enjoy determine the political activities that they participate in and this gives the citizens identity or a sense of belonging. Heater also notes that the conscience aspect of citizenship is what gives citizenship an identity. He argues that  this identity if formed  by ones knowledge of their basic rights and duties, identifying  the sovereignty of the state in  granting these rights and duties through  policies and  laws and also though  identification of methods that are legal in  demanding  for these rights. The state is very key if citizenship ever gains an identity. This is because failure by the state to treat its people as citizens but as subjects implies that these individuals do not develop the citizenship conscience hence they lack the identity.

Turner (1986) argues that citizenship identity, which implies having a sense of belonging and solidarity has a very strong link in regard to the distribution of resources and especially where it’s done in an un equal way.

From a narrow understanding of citizenship, aliens have been excluded in many countries from enjoying even the most basic of amenities. An alien is a citizen of one country living in a foreign country. Most of their rights are determined by agreements and relationships that the two countries have. Policies such as the 1996 welfare reform act made citizenship a requirement for one to enjoy most of the basic public benefits in The United States. This means that anyone arriving in the country legally and even on a permanent basis but who is not a citizen cannot enjoy basic support programmes.  Aliens in most countries are not allowed to vote or hold public office. In other countries and even some US states, on is not allowed to practice in certain professions especially the legal profession. They are thereby forced to go back to school in those countries in order to be allowed to practice. There are also laws that make it very easy for the government to deport aliens and this happens especially if they break laws however careful they try to be this can be viewed as harassment. This is mostly done by limiting the Aliens rights. The aliens are also denied the right to vote and even press legal charges by denying those rights to judicial review or making it difficult. There are also efforts in some countries to do away with citizenship by naturalization and even birth whereby the aliens beget children in foreign countries and this is especially when they are not documented.

Epidemiology and Infertility

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Prevalence of infertility in the U.S

An estimated 6.1 million American women between 15 to 44 years old have implication s of infertility following fecundity impairment as they failed to conceive in their lifetime. This constitutes an approximate of 10% of the females in the USA at the stated age brackets who experience difficulty in getting pregnancy. However, such impairments are not only in women. Approximately 18.1% of men in the US were diagnosed with infertility problems of which 13.1& had sperm or semen issues while 5.9% varicocele cases.
Demographic characteristics of women with impaired fecundity

About a third of the women above 35 years in age experience fertility problems. This is unlike those below 30 years as the chances of conceiving decline as they age. Awareness and education is also of effect since the informed people tend to practice to preserves their fertility as opposed to them who are not well informed of the same. Inaccessibility to health care services also contribute to high cases of infertility amongst the poor as it bars them from receiving good medical attention. High costs lead to poor health to the parents and their children. In the racial or ethnic lines, a study by Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults found that African American women were twice in infertility cases; an indication of their prevalence for the same.

Demographic characteristics of women receiving infertility treatment

The women receiving infertility treatment are mostly those who meet the costs. In fact, the stability of the economic status of their respective countries determines the rates and numbers at which they respond. In addition, their figures are further affected through improved diagnosis, effective treatment and availability of the service.
Gap between those in need of infertility treatment and those who actually receive it

The gap between those who need infertility treatment and those who receive it follows a number of factors which include financial capabilities, lack of insurance covers and available legal systems. The costs are expensive to some people who actually need them thereby making it difficult for them to receive infertility treatment maybe of long-term expenses. Lack of insurance coverage is also a factor that bars most couples from receiving infertility treatments in a number of states therefore making the gap between those who need the treatments and those who receive them wider. The policies that are in place do not fully address the challenges of infertility treatment and this is also a determinant in the receivership of infertility treatment.
Common causes of infertility among women

One of the common causes of infertility in women is chronic pelvic inflammatory disease which causes tubal scars and blockage of fallopian tube.  Tobacco smoking contributes too to decline in conception, dysfunction of the ovulatory system and premature menopause. Obese conditions also lead to dysfunction of the menstrual and ovulatory systems alongside raising the chances of miscarriages, hence infertility.

Common causes of infertility among men

Amongst the common causes of infertility among men is the condition of varicocele which has been detected in about half of the inpatients turning up for surgery services and around two thirds among those visiting the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) in the US for male infertility. It is the enlargement of testicle veins causing heat that affect the sperms’ number and shape. Besides, hazards aligned to the environment and occupation is alleged to contribute to the reduced sperm quality. Tobacco smoking leads to low sperm quantity and density while overweight also impair reproduction fertility as it contributes to dysfunctions of ovulatory and menstrual systems.

Marxism and Keynesian Economics

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Economics analysis was over the years an issue that raised sufficient concerns among the politicians and the economists alike. Franklin Roosevelt was shaken by the great depression to the extent that when Keynes shared his propositions with him, he felt the prepositions were too easy to offer solutions. In both theoretical arguments, rationality of the consumer is placed central. Under Marx’s capitalism, individuals always yearned to amaze much wealth and could not be satisfied to the extent to continued wealth amazement. In Keynes economics, the decision by rational consumer always affected the entire economy.

The proletariat capitalist always owned their services and the decision to sell these services was at their discretion. Within the beliefs of Marx, classes in the economy were defined by the relationship between the members and the inherent means for the productions of the goods and services. Ideally, according to Marx, history was transcending from to class wars, uprising and struggles (Tresscott, 1996). Marx asserts that workers would offer their services to the capitalist upperclass for the sake of sustaining their families even if the wage level was a shear bare minimum.

 

 

Discussion

Keynes sought to explain the great depression and found the depression to be a function of the economics slumps that were transcend from the rationality of the consumers. These were affecting the uniformity of the circular flow of income. Given that ones income was simply the other person’s expenditure, Keynes argued that the decision by any consumer to restrict his expenditure patterns would ultimately affect the income of the supplier, and hence course the slumps in the economy.

In a normal economy, according to Keynes, the level of employment is normally high and the expenditure of everyone would be sustained at a level that makes the economics activities balanced (Matticks, 2005). Subsequently, the circular flow of money remains within the requisite level and the economy doesn’t strain to maintain the activities. However, when the economy is shaken, the consumers’ confidence become shaken and may opt to save their probable expenditure for the sake of harder times ahead.

Subsequently, given that one person’s income is the other person’s expenditure, the trend trickles down to the other sectors of the economy (Review of Keynesian theory, 2008). This results from the fact that some of the consumers resort to hoarding money on pretext of saving, causing a shortage in the money supply and subsequently leading to even harder times within the economy.  The continued hoarding of money ends up making the vicious cycle a continuous trend; eating direly into the economy.

In mitigating this treacherous trend, Keynes argues that the central bank has to expand the money supply. This would be achieved through the sale of treasury bills and Treasury bond to the public which would assist in returning the confidence of the consumers. Subsequently, expenditure would be normalised which would translate into the stabilisation of the economy through the reestablishment of the circular flow of money. Because of the simplicity of the policy guideline, they were readily wished away by most political classes because they seemed too easy to give results.

Exchange seems to be a common aspect of the two economists. While Keynes looks at the exchange preference of the consumers, Marx looks at the exchange preference of the labourers and the producers of the services. According to Marx, the value of any product depended largely on the value of labour. Like in the case of capitalist economics (Review of Keynesian theory, 2008), if the labourers chose to withhold their services, hoard in the case of Keynesian economics, then there could be slumps in terms of the circular flow on income. Ideally, there could be no sufficient circulation of money and the services and good produced would well be in short supply and therefore affecting the economic cycle.

Marx and Keynes (Ward, 2007) are in agreement that decline in the accumulation of capitals affects the performance of economies. Keynes sees the dilemma as caused by the deficiency in the investment prospects of the nation. Marx argues that if incentives lack, the possibility of increasing investments are reduced and therefore affecting the employment levels. Because expenditure depends on the income of the consumers, low level of employment ultimately eats into the prospects of increased good and service consumptions.

Keynes however, (Tresscott, 1996) does not find depression and crisis as an imperative aspect of the formation of capital. He argues that this is only applicable under the laissez faire conditions. Further, he argues that this would only suffice in cases where the economic equilibrium does not call for full employment which according to Keynes is an impossible condition.

On his part, Marx argues that continued formation of capital presupposes periods of crisis and depression. Marx argues that crisis is only a mechanism that precludes equilibrium believed to function best under capitalist tenets. Under depression, the capitalist structure have been found by Marx to undergo requisite changes that would restore profitability that would have been lost hitherto, translating into the expansion of capital.

Keynes and Marx largely dealt with economic aggregate. The difference only emerges in the sense that while Marx looked at the trend that transcended capital formation Keynes looked at formulation of incidental policy that would support the capital formation without damaging the capitalist production prospects.  Keynes economic system was divided into two sectors; the sector that was to produce capital good and that that was to produce consumptions goods. The total income was therefore the sum total of the wage units resultant from both sectors.

Marx (Tresscott, 1996) emphasises the formation of capital, Keynes emphasises consumptions. Combined; the two look at the aggregate demand. Subsequently, this implies that the consumption of services and consumption good’s value translated into the total income of the labourers and hence at this point equilibrium is reached. At the point the savings should equal the investments.

The American economy has remained resilient over the years because of the marginal propensity of its populace (Ward, 2007). It is perhaps for this reason that the economy of the United States was threatened over the last two years resulting from the economic downturn. Through the two years, the ability of the American to purchase equities reduced, subsequently, the consumer shunned investment fearing for the performance of the economy. This reduced investment also meant decline in the employment levels of the resources largely the labour force (Matticks, 2005). The shaken economy, as is argued by Keynes causes investors and consumers alike to save for the future which would be appearing oblique.

China on the other hand, has had its economy on the upward trend with renewed resilience over the years. In line with the arguments put forth by Marx and Keynes, the marginal propensity to invest and consumer from the market of the Chinese have been relatively high and sustained. Besides, the rate of capital accumulation has been very high (Review of Keynesian theory, 2008). Subsequently, given that one person’s expenditure according to Keynes is another person’s income, the circular flow of income has been sustained at a level that has been able to keep the economy resilience. High consumption has equally translated into increased aggregate demand that has called for increased investments and expansion of the labour force.

The Keynesian and Marxist approach to economics has been very incidental in the development of policy for the cushioning of economies against crises. Keynesianism, for instance, has been a critical tool in controlling inflation and unemployment (Matticks, 2005). Certainly, controlled demand is a precursor to checking inflation just as increased aggregate demand boost employment prospects. It is for this reason that the Keynesianism emerges as a one theory that has stood the test of time.

Consequent to the tenets set by the Keynesian economics, the US maintains two policies for maintaining the requisite money supply. When the economy seems to be slowing, the central bank through the commercial banks offers credit to its citizens who then invest (Ward, 2007). These investments results into increased employment opportunities. Once the employment opportunities are increased the populace’s propensity to consumer is improved hence translating into increased aggregate demand.

Conclusion

The Marxist and the Keynesian find due leverage and application through the Chinese and the American economies. Any economy world over that has to remain afloat has to keep a keen eye on the rate of capital formation and the marginal propensity to consume of the members through sustained incomes.

On the part of the capitalist and Marxists in this case, the accumulation of capital is imperative in supporting development prospects. Labour is developed through training in both America and China which has made the two economies remain resilient over the years. The two aspects brought forth by the two theories ideally interlude for any economy to remain stable.

Role of Sacraments in the Catholic Church

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Sacraments have over the year played a critical role in the Catholic Church. The sacraments have acted as unions for the catholic faithfuls; playing pivotal and symbolic roles in marriage and holy orders. The two, marriage and holy order sacraments have symbolically had crucial roles in the shaping the family unit and the church as a family. Similarly, the use of the sacrament have always been of critical import to the church; marking the unit of purpose within the church.

Sacraments of loving service are those sacraments that show the unit of purpose. These sacraments are used to show the commonality of purpose that a group or a pair has in common. This sacraments show the bond that the said pair or group is bound by. Within this mandate the two sacraments are viewed clearly as sacraments of services. Loving Services would ideally be used contextually as the willingness to offer help without the need for returns. The sole returns are utterly the blessing from the almighty.

Discussion

The sacraments of vocation are similar in all aspects to other sacraments. These are unfolding realities and continuous in orient in the lives of the catholic faithfuls. These are viewed as a path towards full redemption in the Catholic Church (Martin, 1997). These practices are meant to move us closer to salvation hence a stronger relationship with God and subsequently our relationship with each another. Within the mandate of this assertion, both the matrimonial and holy order sacraments are indeed sacraments of loving service.

The bible according to Hebrews introduces the catholic faithfuls to the life of sacramental activities. Sacraments are not only a means of showing our commitment to the word and service to God but commitment towards serving those that we live with. Besides, Jason (Jason, 2010) argues that the sacraments being developed from the acts of Jesus, there is union that is derived from the sharing in this Holy Communion by the participants in the communion.

The priest and the other church leaders are called upon to serve the faithfuls. As preacher of the holy word, one celebrating the holy sacrament, the priest is called upon through this Holy Communion to be sacred in the day to day practices (Richstatter, 2009). The ideals explicated in the practice of the sacraments are the services that are both charitable and loving. Subsequently, this forms the basis for the having the two as being devotion practices. Ideally, by so doing he not only serves the faithfuls but also serves God.

The basic calling for the Christians is the call towards discipleship. Within the precincts of this cardinal pillar of Christianity, the most common sacraments for vocation have been the initiation that has been characterised by baptism and confirmation (Sacraments, 1996). It is through the sacraments that the members of the Catholic Church are formally introduced to the faith. Subsequently the sharing of the sacraments makes the member fully ordained to Catholicism. The sharing solemnly celebrates and invites the new believer into the practice of the Catholic Church.  After baptism members share the sacraments as a way of becoming members of the family and the great universe of the persons of Christ.

The calling for baptism has always been viewed as the highest and most intimate show for the acceptance of the creator. Nevertheless, the vocation of baptism plays out as not only critical but also evidence of open commitment to the principles of the family which is inherently enshrined within the family.  Whichever the perception on the components of the family, this the sharing whether referenced to the blood family or the church family shows the centrality of the sacraments in the cementing of any relationship.

The similarities exhibited within the commitment inherent within matrimony and priesthood were early never explored. However, there is very pronounced correlation between the two commitments. Formative, one seems to be ideally shrouded in the secular realm of daily livelihood of the congregation shared with the non believers, while the other seen as dully withdrawn from secular realms and working within the religious realms alone. Inasmuch as this appears to bring the two to disrepute; there is sufficient evident that there is just very much in common.

In the two forms of vocations there is total commitment of an individual to the service of the others (Monica, 2002). This commitment has been done with the intention of being life-long. Besides, both the two have not only inclusive but also very exclusive in their characteristics. The two have throughout the Christian cycle been viewed as very essential building blocks of the Christian Catholic family and community. Ideally without these vocational sacraments, the church would not be strong enough to live the tide.

The church is meant to be a community comprised of the faithfuls and a place for God’s people. This is ideally realised at the very basic low level of the relationship development process. This basic level is the family which is equally cemented through the use of the matrimonial sacrament (Jason, 2010). The church is indeed brought in to existence via the continual maintenance of sharing the Eucharist’s- the Sunday Eucharist that is ordinarily shared during Sundays. The other uniting factor is the relationship between the human societies that is started at the family unit that is built on the sharing of the Eucharist during marriage.

Over the years it has been the Eucharist that has made a people a community of Christ. Martins (Martin, 1997) assert that the Eucharist has been linked directly to the ordination of Christ followers. Within the use of the holy sacrament, the holy orders are to constitute presiding, gathering, concentrating, preaching and proclaiming the holy word of God.  The gathering that is prompted by the Eucharist is what makes the church and therefore its centrality in the church cycle.

The argument has been over the year on whether the Catholic Church can be without the administering of the Eucharist. Yet still there can be not Eucharist without an ordained priest. The two are so interdependent that the absence of one tends ti the render the other useless (Richstatter, 2009). While the Eucharist would well be administered by anybody, it would only serve the purpose if it was administered by an ordained priest. The priest has to consecrate the Eucharist before it can be taken by the church family.

The priests are normally ordained by the bishops who are in turn ordained by other bishops. This chain of flow of the ordinance shows that there is a link between the congregations world over. It is this uniting bond that is very important. During the ordainment of the priests the Eucharist shared is intended to prepare him for the life challenges that are ahead. Similarly, the Eucharist in marriage is normally prepares the couple for the responsibilities ahead.

The centrality of the sacraments shows the justification for which the holy order’s sacrament. The sacraments tend to martial the energies for the consecrated person towards Christ’s service and the preparedness towards the crucial task ahead of the priest or the family. Sacraments are meant to show commitment to the calling and therefore great wisdom and generosity is required. Besides, the sacraments offer the partakers of sufficient grace for which the execution of the tasks and the meeting of the great expectations.

There has been a lot of premium that has been placed on the necessity and the vitality of the priesthood within the livelihood of the church. Nevertheless the doctrines of the Catholic Church do appreciate that there are two sacraments of vocation (Richstatter, 2009). The central rationale for referring to the marriage sacraments as a vocation sacrament is because it equally does call for a lot of commitment and a critical role in fashioning the church. Subsequently is plays a critical role in redeeming the entire world.

The scripture guidance tends to point to the fact that the complementarities between the partners in any marriage have a critical role in the shaping of the church and the society at large. Through the family, the human community is intended to be made a success. Besides, through the family commitment, the society would be less competitive, less ruthless and with reduced injustices and cruelties. Subsequently the society would survive on brotherly and Christian basis.

During the Eucharist for the ordainment of the priests, there is a commitment to remain dedicated to the church at whatever cost, similarly, the commitment between the couples is that whatever the circumstance their will remain together (Sacraments, 1996). The children will be for both of them and none will run away from the responsibility.  These ideally bring the two families from which they hail together and the Eucharist at the bonding celebrations is the zeal for the commitment. Subsequent, through the marriages in the church bonds are build that form a basis for mutual support that extends to the church.

Though there is a lot of complexity in the human understanding, brought about by the rivalries and the feuds, injustices and bullying, exclusions and prejudices, marriage in Christ is meant to act as a redemptive act (Monica, 2002). These marriages are meant to transcend various societal challenges and create the wholeness in the within the family cycles and percolate to the community. Ideally this is a critical element in the building of relationships within the church.

This too is an essential element of building the church, the community of the followers of Jesus. This too is a sacrament of vocation, of the calling to build up the church that participates in the work of redemption. Within the marriage setting, the sacraments are taken in the church before the priest as the witness (Jason, 2010). This shows the relationship between the two vocation; matrimonial and priesthood.

The two sacraments have sufficient complementarity. Intrinsically and more theologically no plausible evidence exists on the exclusiveness of the sacraments for matrimony and the sacrament of the holy orders. While the present discipline of the Catholic Church needs much celibacy in its priests; this does have to be the case through. Consequently, any body would be called upon to build the body of Christ, by bringing the believers together through the administration of the Eucharist, doing this through family to family relationships.

Conclusions

It is evident from the foregoing discussion that anybody would come in to develop a body of believers through the two vocations; matrimonial or holy order. This would be done through the development of a redemptive relationship between the families which subsequently percolates into the church.

Like the other sacraments, the sacraments for devotion are far from the ceremonies that come and go. These ceremonies are meant to be perpetual reminders of family commitment and the priestly commitment of the priests and the bishops to Gods purpose and so are the sacraments in the family. Continually sacraments are constantly unraveling the realities in the lives of the lives of most faithfuls for full redemption. The sacraments have been ideally viewed as the dynamics that contribute to our closer movement towards salvation.