The development of modern western civilization can be traced back to the period between the early eighteen centuries and early twentieth century. This is the period that would witness the dominance of the European culture and values with other civilizations taking a back seat. The spread of western values and influence into the rest of the globe took place in two phases, these being the old and the new imperialisms. Both the old and the new imperialism were driven by similar motives that revolved around economics.

The old imperialism was predominantly motivated and driven by the search and establishment of trade routes. Imperialism can simply be defined as the exertion of influence and control by one nation over another, culturally, politically, or economically.  The old imperialism took place between the 16-18th centuries. This was a period characterized by relative expansion of the economy in most of the European powers and intensification of commerce. There arose the need for these powers to expand their trading territory. This was the basic drive unlike in the new imperialism that was fuelled by a multiplicity of factors. This period would see the then European powers ranging from Great Britain and Spain emerge dominant over the rest of the nations by establishing trade routes in commerce lucrative areas.

On the other hand, the new imperialism kicked off in the late nineteenth century and would see the rise of the powerful nations extending political control over the weaker ones. It would see the exertion of immense influence held by the powerful empires over the weak states especially in the Third World countries. One major difference between the new and old imperialism exists on the territory shift. While in the old one, the imperialists were targeting the territories that were along the prime trade routes, now these nations were moving deeper into the interior; they wee not limiting their influence along the sea and ocean routes. This radical shift in the territories covered emanates from the differences in the motivation for imperialism. As mentioned, the first venture was purely based on economics. The new imperialism however was based on economics, balance of power and nationalism.

The first imperialism had the search for gold and other valuable minerals as the key commodities. However at the onset of the new imperialism there came an urgent and insatiable need for raw materials. Intense industrial revolution was going on in most European countries. Mechanization was becoming the order of the day coupled with mass production and consumption. New territories had to be found from which raw materials could be found to support industrialization at home as well as to market the products across the oceans (Headrick, D. R., 19).

There had also arisen a battle of supremacy among the European powers, nations such as Europe were stepping up their efforts to challenge the dominance of great Britain both in economics and in maritime. The only way to fight this dominance was through extending their influence abroad mostly to Asia and in Africa. Britain was not to be left behind. What would follow after this was the scramble of Africa.

Close to nationalism was also the issue of balance of power. The domination of Britain led to some of other European nations feeling inadequate and had to acquire colonies abroad to balance this and be on an equal footing. Europe too was undergoing superiority complex where the nations made it their duty to civilize the uncivilized territories especially in Africa and in Asia.

Unlike the old imperialism, which did not go beyond trade and where the European traders respected the local rulers especially in Asia and along African coast, the new imperialism was characterized by subjugation and alienation of land. They took over political leadership and transformed the social and religious foundation in the process of colonialism that was to ensue. This imperialism was seen as being as result of the growing economic and social unrest at home. These powers had to acquire colonies to ease pressure at home.

Most of the European powers acquired colonies in Asia and Africa amidst much rivalry amongst them, with some trying to outdo each other to grab the strategically placed territories. The end of the 19^th century would witness each power laying a claim to rich territories; this however would not last long as it would be followed by a haste retreat especially by the empire towards the start of the second quarter of the twentieth century. There are a number of factors that would lead to the initiation of the process of decolonization in both Asia and Africa. These were; changes in economics, ideology, self-determination movements as well as the lackluster support of the public in Europe (Raymond F. Betts, 19).

The post world war two periods saw the rise of two dominant nations; the United States and the Soviet Union. This was a period that was characterized by a raging debate internationally on the legitimacy of colonialism. The United States and the soviet bloc were against colonialism. Their foreign policies especially in Asia and Africa were meant to supplant the predominant authority in these colonies. These powers were on a collision path due to the differences in ideology. Each power was trying to exert a new kind of influence that was against the ideals of colonialism. The United States was spreading capitalism while the Soviet Union was for communism. This meant spreading new ideals that would go against what the colonial powers were seeking to accomplish (Kennedy, Paul, 33).

The post war period also saw the rise of self-determination in the colonies as well as the rise of revolutionary movements. There were also changes in the political scene with mass movement parties becoming the order of the day. Charismatic leaders who were rallying people behind the fight against colonialism had also arose, such leaders as mahatma Gandhi of India and Ho Chi Minh in China. Africa too had its share of these nationalistic leaders. The rise in self-determinism was fueled by bloody wars as the nations braced themselves to free their people from the yoke of colonialism. The European powers could not ignore such forces (Lace, William W, 44).

Economics too were at play. It had become impossible for the colonial powers to hold any colonies. This was exacerbated by the disquiet from the public who had grown tired of paying for colonies that were no longer viable in the economic sense. The huge costs of maintaining colonial territories were having a huge toll in the mother countries and the public was rising against their governments in opposing the colonies. It is the multiplicity of these factors and events that would see the initiation of the decolonization process which kicked off earnestly in Asia then later on in Africa which bore the worst blunt of colonialism. By the end of the third quarter of the 20^th century, colonial occupation had almost come to a close signaling the end of a process that had kicked off over three centuries ago.

 Works cited

Lace, William W. The British Empire: The End of Colonialism. San Diego: Lucent Books, 2000; 44

Kennedy, Paul. Rise and fall of the Great Powers. New York: Random House, 1987.33

Headrick, D. R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the

Nineteenth Century. New York, Oxford University Press. 1981; 19

Raymond F. Betts.Decolonization: The making of a contemporary world. Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. February 2004; 28

 

What is nation building? Mostly the concept refers to the process that is followed in restructuring a country that is not functioning properly as it is expected. A good example is of a country that is trying to improve its economy that has collapsed. The term is also be used to mean constructing a nation using the powers conferred to it by the subject so that it could be politically stable and viable. There are various methods that are used in nation building. Some governments use propagandas while others build infrastructure to bring social integration and harmony as well as economic growth. The term mostly fits to the African nations that are trying to shape their territories newly after colonialists divided them without considering ethnic and other divisions in those regions. Nation building can be either peaceful or violent. The main focus of this paper will be to compare and contrast the two categories.

In normal events, every state should be able to provide for its people and should be able to protect the rights of its citizens. One main problem that government face is the challenge of keeping a stable government face is the challenge of keeping a stable government that is capable of meeting basic standards of its citizens. The failure of the government to provide and protect its citizens is what broods violence. Multi ethnic society is one of the factors that contribute to the violent peace making process. There are various methods that can be used in peaceful nation building for example, the party system and signing mutual agreements with disagreeing parties.

One strategy for promoting peaceful nation building is by inculcating the culture of peace in school. By this way, the future generations will get this culture from their predecessors. The concept of nation building as I mentioned earlier was used in decolonization programs but later it shifted to other aspects of life. It process has been and is still an ongoing process.

Violence in nation building is dangerous (Hippler J.2005; 27-43) It was used in countries like Rwanda, Sudan Somali and other African states like in the case of Rwanda where in a bid to take control in nation building a fight erupted between Tutsi and Hutus. A lot of people were killed especially from the minority Tutsi in 1994 under what is now referred as the Rwandan genocide. This conflict also created the problem of refugees. Many people who were escaping from Rwanda went to the neighboring countries as refugees. Many of them died of cholera, dysentery and other diseases.

Another disadvantage of violent nation building is that human rights are abused. For example, in Sudan and Rwanda many people lost their lives, women were raped while others were held prisoners of war. Even children were conscripted in the army.

Violent nation building has also been witnessed in Darfur region in Western Sudan. The crisis is between two ethnic tribes where one group comprises of Baggagra who are Arabs while the other one is comprised of Zaghawa, Massaleit and Fur who are land tillers unlike Baggara who are camel keepers.

This conflict has been caused by shortage of resources. Baggara tribe started it in 2003 while in search of water in the South confronted the non-Arab communities. The conflict has led to about 450,000 deaths. Many diseases have occurred in the region. A lot of people have been displaced and are now refugees either at home or in the neighboring countries. This violent nation building strategy has led to the disruption of economic social education as well as economic institutions. This is because religious institutions that help in integrating people cannot even conduct their businesses and trade freely as they used before the crisis erupted. It should be known that nations develop because of the peaceful environment that they enjoy at home. This why countries like Rwanda, Uganda and Sudan are among the poorest nations in the world

If you have watched the last king of Scotland film that was released in 2006 then, you can truly see the demerits of using violence as a strategy of nation building. The film is about the rise and fall of Idi Amin as president in 1971 and his fall in 1979.

A violent strategy in search of peace promotes terrorism, smuggling of goods and other illegal businesses are conducted. This happened in Uganda when Amin was in a bid to strengthen his position (Hansen H.B. and Twaddle M. (Eds) 1994; 78-85) He smuggled goods across the border and sold illegal firearms to rebels in southern region of Sudan. President Obote ordered for his house arrest but this idea failed to materialize. Eventually Amin staged a coup when Obote went to Singapore in 1971 to attend a commonwealth meeting. According to the international human rights groups, about hundred thousands to three thousand people were killed. Most of these were from Lango, Acholi and other ethnic communities.

Amin forced Asians out of the country, which he proudly described as ‘black man’s country.’ Though many Ugandans approved the move, their departure had serious impact on sugar and textile industries that closed down. Also educational places that were run by Asians were closed. By 1970s Uganda was in an economical mess and even now it is still trying to recover from the ravages it inherited from the rule of Idi Amin Dada.

On the other hand, peaceful nation building has its merits. It is more recommended than violent one. It happened in Senegal after it become independent in 1960. Senghor who was the president took control over Senegal. He made alliances with the local leaders from various tribes. In this way, he was able to set a stage for his country to develop through his gradual reforms strategy. Africans in Senegal were unified by their strong desire to be independent and were determined to restructure their dilapidated nation soon after the French government moved out. From the independence period, leaders have been trying to promote national loyalty. They used the strategy of ‘ethnic arithmetic’ in translating regional loyalties into national loyalties. This strategy saved people from shedding unnecessary blood after they got their independence (Desmond J. Clark and Roland 1975; 123)

In Tanzania, nation building thrived well without resulting to an armed conflict. This can be attributed to the policies of Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. A close look at the Tanzanian case, one can clearly see that any nation can develop irrespective of its different ethnic backgrounds with various languages. In Tanzania, media and educational systems were employed to inculcate in people the desire to unite for national development as opposed to regional or ethnic lies. Through Nyerere’s administrative skills, Tanzania had peaceful national development strategies and has never witnessed any violent mutiny except a small mutiny that broke out in his army but was suppressed instantly with the help of British troops. Many African leaders did not approve this idea and referred to it as neo colonialism (Zell Hans M. (Ed) 2006; 631)

As we have noted, countries moving from chaos to order takes time to achieve their dream but if they again embark on armed conflict, the nation building process goes back to square one. In a nutshell, nation building means putting all institutions whether economic, political, judicial, social or medical in a unified whole. It is this interrelatedness that creates a fertile ground for national development. This is what has made countries like Senegal and Tanzania to develop while Sudan and Rwanda are economically lagging behind.

 

Reference:

Hippler J. Nation Building: A Key Concept for Peaceful Transformation. Pluto Press.        2005; 27-43

Desmond J. Clark and Roland 1975. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge           University Press.1975; 123.

Hansen H.B. and Twaddle M. (Eds) From Chaos to Order: The Politics of Constitution   Making in Uganda. London: James Currey. 1994; 78-85

Zell Hans M. (Ed). The African Studies Companion: A Guide to Information Sources, 4^th             Edition. United Kingdom. 2006; 631

Since 1968 up to 2001, September 11^th approximately a thousand Americans have been killed through terrorism either at home or abroad. But the climax of terrorism in USA came in 2001 when a series of what seemed to be a well-orchestrated terrorist attacks befell on the Americans. This happened in the morning hours after the terrorists connected with Al-Qaeda network hijacked US passenger airliners and crashed them on various buildings in USA, the world trade centre included. This attack took Americans by surprise and became an awakening call to the Bush’s administration on fighting terrorism. After that attack, of September 11^th the US president Bush, secretary of defense Mr.Rumsfeld and the secretary of state Collin Powel were determined to crush terrorism irrespective of the means to be used. They aimed to destroy terrorists basis, killing or arresting them and even retaliating against other nations that either harbor or support terrorism. This paper will specifically focus on the war against terrorism or what is simply called counter terrorism and will limit its scope to this war only (Strickland R.A., 2004)

After the September 2001 attack, a finger was pointed on American-Arab population in America. A lot of emails, messages, websites as well as secret phone calls were directed on these people with a hate message. Now as a senior counter terrorism official, I would refrain myself from joining the band wagon in this blame game, I would organize various investigation agents like federal investigation bureau (F.B.I) and C.I.A to send agents in these areas to monitor their moves. These people are citizens of America and therefore, any move that is made in fighting terrorism should put into consideration that they have their own rights that must be protected.

I would also try to create informers in their mosques who can help us in gathering any information that could be of importance. As the saying goes, birds of the same feather flock together, it is highly possible that these terrorists would come in these mosques to fulfill their religious aspects of life. I would be very cautious in choosing who could be of help to me. It is true that if you want to catch a thief you use another thief. Thus, by using an Arab in my investigation, I would be in a position to get a lot of information that I need. A civilized society is that which is peaceful and a peaceful environment is an ingredient of development, thus my move would be geared towards creating this society and also preventing future acts of terrorism that might result to unnecessary blood shed as well as life loss.

Though there might be some truth in this tenaciously held belief that American- Arabs might have been responsible, people should know that, there are many who condemn such an act. Others are loyal to the USA government and give so much to this nation and should be protected from any form of unnecessary harassment.

Any American citizen captured in the USA because of terrorism acts should be arrested like any other criminal, locked up until full investigation is done. If the evidence provided points them, then they would be charged for the crime and I would let the law to take its course. If terrorists capture any US citizen, the government would try its best to make sure that these hostages are kept with the right atmosphere by their attackers. I would use any possible means to see that they have been rescued even if it means staging a military operation or through negotiating with the terrorists. I would try to convince Mr. Bush who does not support the idea of negotiating with terrorists the need of doing so if it is the only viable option.

Any American citizen who would fight American force broad should be treated like any other terrorist. He should not be given any privilege that other Americans abroad enjoy. There is no good reason of not killing him or her for he is an obstacle to future peace in the world. But, if it is a foreign national who are fighting American forces abroad, then it should not be forgotten that he or she is fighting for his country. I would order them to be eliminated if and only if they prove to be obstacles to our mission of tracking down our enemies. If any of these subjects are caught, they should be pressed to cough up some information that could help US.

There is nothing wrong with torturing these people if it is done in the name of promoting world peace. It means that if they can afford to block peace builders from executing their missions, then they themselves are the perpetrators and they should be done away with. Even God killed the Philistines who were a threat to the Israelites. God made them to drown so as Israelites could reach to the Promised Land safely. Therefore, I would torture the culprits and even kill them if it is the only solution left in peace promotion (John P. Crank, Patria E. Gregor, 2005)

There are various perspectives of just war, for example there is Christian perspective that holds that war is not good, there is Islamic perspective, which maintains that if war is on religious background, then it is okay. For example, ‘Jihad’ or holy war. There is also what is called Pacifist view, which holds that war should be used as the last option. That is, after all other methods have proved to be futile. A war is said to just if is it is started by a legal entity, if it is fought with an aim of redressing wrongs done or in self-defense and also if it is for re-establishing peace. It should be known that violence leveled should be equivalent to the damage caused by the attackers. The parties to the war should be able to differentiate between combatants and non-combatants for a war to be just (Gunaratna R., 2004)

Counter terrorism can be said to be just if it is fought in a bid to re-establish peace. Also, the belligerents on US side always wear uniform to identify themselves from the innocent un armed citizens, the war is for solving the wrongs that have already been done by the terrorists and finally Also, this war on terror is declared by a legal body. In fact, it is president himself who has the prerogative to declare such a war.

Fighting terrorism can cease to be just if is initiated by unrecognized body, if in its course it is infringing on the rights of innocent people and if it changes its course midstream and becomes a war for promoting one’s national interests as opposed to the search for peace.

Anti- Americanism (Byman D. 2006) can be termed as being opposed or hostile to everything that involves America. It is not something that has taken root in America. It is not as serious as it is in Arab countries. According to Tom Lindbergh, anti-Americanism has not gone to the extent of impeding on its policies. In my opinion, people who glorify terrorism acts and yet they do not take active role in executing them should be held accountable. This is because you cannot judge an act as good if you are not a direct beneficiary of it. By approving these acts they insight violence by giving them moral support. If people are supporting a particular course of action then, it is justified. Thus, by praising terrorism then, terrorists would feel motivated to act more. Therefore, these people should be arrested and be asked to say why they are supporting it.

The US government in dealing with passive terrorism in school and mosques, it encourages the teachers, preachers and other personnel involved to reverse the hate speech that is spread by these institutions. The president of USA; Bush in 2005 did ask students from Arab countries to see America in another light apart from the one that is depicted by prejudiced media in their countries. The US government is also trying to protect charity firms from being abused by terrorists by putting strong government in place, offering financial as well as partner management in charity organizations (Audrey K.C. and Hudes JM. 2004)

The USA Patriot Act, which was passed on October 26, 2001, has significantly reduced the frequency of terrorism attacks in United States of America. The act was passed after the September 11^th attacks. It cannot be said to have been timely timely. The government should have thought of such an act even before the attack. Since it was passed, the number of terrorism acts especially on the American soil has gone down. If I were in the congress, I would not vote the act as it is because currently it allows detectives to intercept phone calls, emails and accessing personal financial records thus you cannot conduct your private affairs. Again the act has authorized indefinite detention of immigrants. Finally, the law enforcement officers search homes and businesses without seeking permission from the owners. If these flaws were corrected, then I would vote for it.

 Reference:

 

Strickland R.A., 2004. Restorative Justice. New York: Peter Lang.

John P. Crank, Patria E. Gregor, 2005. Counter-Terrorism After 9/11: Justice, Security      and Ethics Reconsidered. Lexis Nexas, Cincinnati ISBN: 159359572

Gunaratna R., 2004. The Changing Face of Terrorism. Singapore: Eastern University         Press.

Audrey K.C. and Hudes JM. 2004. Attacking Terrorism: Elements of A Grand Strategy. Washington: Georgetown University Press.

Byman D. 2006. 2005 Deadly Connection: States that Sponsor Terrorism. New York:       Cambridge and Brookings.

In 1877, the United States of America was reeling under the pressure and aftermath of reconstruction. Relations between the northern and the southern states had become polarized and ethnic animosity was rife. America, from this period to date has gone through both smooth and turbulent times. Majority of those historical events have played a role in shaping the United States seen today.

The westward migration can be traced to the period when the colonists began their settlement in America, it continued later and for long and has been the source of many queries from many historians who have wondered what it is that drew people west. The answers lie in the immense opportunities available in the west then. The later part of the 19^th century was characterized by conflicts between farmers and ranchers especially after the passing of the 1862 Homestead Act that was seeking to give land to those who were devoted to tilling it. It had taken a racial turn especially with the entrance of foreigners in the migration. Americans of Africa descent were not given land in the prime territories in addition to the other marginalized groups such as Mexicans. Many of the people were hoping to try their luck in the west rather than in the rapidly expanding and industrializing East. There was over a 20% population increase by 1900.

Increase in population had been fuelled by immigration of more than 9 million people from across the globe. This was unlike before where majority of immigrant were drawn from Western Europe. This resulted to a cause for alarm by most of Americans who believed that the increase in civil and in industrial strife exhibited then was as a result of these immigrants. Laws were enacted to restrict this. An example is the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.By 1902;Chinese were indefinitely banned from immigrating to America.

As far as industrialization is concerned, east was the first to industrialize. This process started with the mechanization of farming. By the close of the 19^th century, the United States was fourth in manufacturing but the process speeded up in the 20^th century that saw it become the largest industrialized nation in the world. This process was fuelled by presidents who supported business, which accelerated wealth accumulation in the gilded age.

Wealth amassed during this period would be invested heavily in the extraction of natural resources. Discovery of telephone by Graham Bell and the light bulb by Edison in 1879 was the first sign that industrialization was being felt in the households.

Major figures and industrialists started to emerge in the various industries. The likes of, Morgan J.P. John, John Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie, representing the key industries such as banking, steel industry and in the oil industry.

The expansion of railroad facilitated the growth of industries in America as well as the cheap labor from Chinese immigrants.

From the close of the 19^th century, the United States initiated a mission of expansionism. This period is known as the Age of Imperialism. This is a period that would witness the acquisition of territories. This would range from Puerto-rico in 1898, Guam, Cuba American Samoa, U.S Virgin Islands, and Panama Canal Zone among others. By the turn of the 20^th century the United States had acquired huge territories that would have likened it to the British Empire. The post second world war period also witnessed rapid economic and political imperialism that characterized the cold war period. This was a period that saw the United States interfere in the internal politics of various nations as it sought to put a stop the spread of communism.

The United States involvement in the Second World War had been rather tentative; it had stuck to its isolationist policy only to make an entry later. The end of the war would see the emergence of the Soviet Union and the United States as the two super powers. The rivalry between there nations would see the start of cold war, a war of words over differences in ideology.

Before the Second World War, the United States had taken an isolationist stance as it was reeling from the effects of the great depression that almost brought the nation to its knees. However, a period characterized by prosperity was to resume after the Second World War that would uplift it to the position of a superpower in rivalry of with the Soviet Union. The cold war ended in the early 1990s with the crumble of the soviet bloc.

The period of the cold war was characterized by the disrespect of civil rights in the foreign countries by the United States. This was so in most countries in Asia and Africa. This is also a period that would see the rise of enactment of civil rights legislation to out low any forms of discrimination. It was a culmination of century’s efforts to curb discrimination based on gender, class and race. A fight initiated by women during the rise of feminism in the early part of the century.

Throughout the history of the United States, in all those economic hurdles, conservatism has triumphed, as Gabriel Kolko puts it (1977). The United States has pursued the ideals of capitalism based on laissez faire. There has been minimal involvement of the government in business. Although progressivism was taking root the early part of the 20^th century, laissez faire survived and has continued to do so. The destiny of the economy through out the history of the United States remains in the hands of market forces.

Reference

Gabriel Kolko, 1977. The triumph of conservatism: a re interpretation of American history, 1900-1916. The free press.

A group refers to a collection of individuals with a common objective that they wish to accomplish together. It could also mean two or more people gathered with a common purpose or interest in a cognitive, affective and social interchange in single or repeated encounters sufficient for participants to develop impressions of one another. Norms are set and collective functioning and goals are developed for their collective activity. A sense of cohesion is developed and they consider themselves distinct from other collectives. (Hartford, 1972).

Human beings are social beings who can use others as mirrors to their own experiences, feelings or behavior. Groups can influence behavior as they create their own styles or specific culture. Family, peers and teachers shape our goals, values, perceptions of life and sense of self. They can enhance or instill new beliefs. They increase one’s self-awareness, change attitudes as well as interpersonal competence. (Toseland W. & Rivas F, 2001)

Group influence is affected by the amount of attachment one has to the other members, values and norms in the group status of the group, rewards and sanctions for conformity and nonconformity and the importance of the group to the member. (Hartford, 1972).

Therapy groups are organized for the purpose of correcting specific behavioral or emotional disorder that impedes a person’s function. In a group therapy, focus is given to unconscious factors, one’s past and personality change (Seligman M. & Marshak E,  1990)

Group formation ensures that goals are set through interactions. The leader considers the needs of each member and integrates them. Service goals, individual goals may be exposed or internalized and considered secret while others may be unconscious, for instance seeking acceptance. All members create goals.

In today’s world individualism is emphasized and groups are important in helping to build relationships group therapy is important on issues like intimacy and people affect each others behavior over time. (Rutan S. & Stone N, 2001)

Specific and clearly defined purpose increases their self-awareness and can identify external distortions causing destructions in their lives.

There are various mechanisms of change in the group context. Members can use imitation where they observe how others react, solve problems and use new styles and then incorporate them. Identification, which entails taking aspects of others to change ones perceptions and group’s cohesiveness. Members could see aspects in fellow members, which they may not be aware of. Internalization deals with a shift in the psychic structure to produce a detailed examination and reexamination of emotional interactions. It is facilitated by confrontation, clarification, interpretation and a sense of belonging. (Felix F. & Laroca D, 1986).

Through repeated experience one learns all that is expected of them. Interpretation should not be made absolute but should be posed to them for further contemplation.

Phases of group treatment.

In the engagement stage bonding is based on common experience and understanding. It begins at a superficial level where there is anxiety for some members but after bonding is accomplished feelings of interconnectedness develop. Anxiety is reduced through self-disclosure and commitment.

The differentiation stage entails the movement to a sense of self where people attempt to demonstrate their own identity. There is more tension in this phase and the need to cooperatively explore each member differences arises. Support and constructive confrontation as the group grows to maturity is important.

The interpersonal or work stage increases focus on individual members. Self-exploration and self-revelation are more common and members explore themselves more deeply. Consequently bonding intensifies.

In the termination stage disengagement is delicate and if this stage is not executed it may undo much of the work accomplished in a group.

According toHartford’s Group Phases include the Pregroup Phases when the idea to start a group is birthed. It could be Private where an idea exists in the mind of the organizer and it determines the potential composition of the group. There is no blueprint for the group yet

It becomes Public when decision to have group is disseminated. Flyers can be used or contacting agencies to refer clients. In notify candidates one finds out why people want to join and allow prospects to decide if group would benefit them.

Decisions are made on time, location and size.

The Convening stage is the beginning of group formation and leaders meet with potential members to discuss their expectations. An assessment of whether people think their expectations will be met is done. Leaders can observe interactions between members.

In the group formation phase people must be significant to one another and discern common purposes or goals as a group. Collectivity is highly enhanced. Time duration for this may vary.

The Phase of integration, disintegration or reintegration is around the third or fourth meeting. Negative social and emotional behavior rises and conflicts may appear.

Original leadership roles may shift as people become more comfortable with themselves.

Members try to establish their identities

Termination Phases.

In pretermination stage people prepare for the end. Evaluation of group accomplishments is done. Work is done through difficulties as members face the realization of the end. Parties could be organized for the last session. Some members may reduce their interactions at this point by showing up late, not showing up at all, or by decreasing their involvement in the group

Separation and anxiety increase as members find themselves wondering why they did not perform, as they ought. They may blame others for not participating. Things to be examined include the meaning of the group to each member, relation to group purposes, meaning of the worker and group aspects.

According to Rutan’s Group Phases include the formative Phase where members struggle to create a group that feels safe enough for them to participate in the therapeutic process. They fear being controlled and engulfed and dependency on the group is observed.

There is a struggle with autonomy and acceptance and it is a period of regression

How they handle this can tell the therapist a lot about past and current relationships and defenses typically used by each member. Advice giving is offered. Stories brought up in the group in this phase symbolize feelings members have in the group. Transition into second phase occurs when trust and acceptance is felt by members

In the reactive Phase individuality of each member becomes apparent.

There is a power struggle as members try to free themselves from the control they feel the group has over them. They try to figure out how to maintain their identity while belonging to the group. Norms are tested and hostility increases.

As the group development commences members tend to lose their identity to conform to the before becoming autonomous to step back into self and learn to relate to others.

Mature Phase entails the group working together towards set goals

Feelings can be expressed openly or confidently and members can assume a variety of roles. Conflicts and different points of view can be tolerated

Members become aware of patterns by reflecting on similar experiences in the group. The leader is no longer seen as omnipotent as members have a more realistic view of him or her.

The Termination stage escalates at half waypoint where members contemplate of the group coming to an end

Definition of group treatment as a modality.

Group therapy plays an important role in the treatment of eating disorders at all levels of care: in initial psycho education, as an adjunct to in-hospital management, in outpatient treatment, or as the central modality in a day hospital program. Group therapy offers the patient acceptance and reinforcement by peers in a treatment setting that is both effective and time-efficient for the clinician

Group work is characterized by diversity, which spans from client populations, client problems, and social work settings (Fink A, 1978).  Groups change with the needs of the times. In a group, members get support and acceptance.  Clients with eating disorders face rejection but group therapy provides them with support. In a positive group setting, members provide acceptance while supporting and encouraging necessary changes.  Here members learn of trust, compassion and empathy.  Interpersonal relationships enhance communication in groups

In a group, members get support and acceptance.  Clients with eating disorders face rejection but group therapy provides them with support. In a positive group setting, members provide acceptance while supporting and encouraging necessary changes.  Here members learn of trust, compassion and empathy.  Interpersonal relationships enhance communication in groups

Group therapy enables clients to gain a more realistic view of situations through group experience.  Universality is a key element in group therapy.  It is a tremendous relief to know there are others like you.  Groups show clients they are not alone as they share feelings and experiences.  All group members are unique.  Clients all have different views and different levels of comprehension.  .  In eating disorder groups the common trait of having an eating disorder is the desire to be special and unique.  The eating disorder itself makes group members feel special.  In a group, members share interests and they share burdens.

In eating disorder groups, anorexics have poorer outcomes then bulimics.  Anorexics tend to be more rigid, withdrawn, anxious, and have extreme difficulty in identifying and expressing feelings.

Groups could be segregated or homogeneous or mixed heterogeneous groups.  Segregated or homogeneous groups have with people with the same disorder.  Segregating enhances similarities among members and they relate to each other easily.  Experts feel it is best not to mix groups.  Heterogeneous or mixed groups can be therapeutic.  In anorexic groups members are egocentric, hypersensitive and anxiety may be high making group interaction impossible.  Anorexics may be competitive.  Each wants to have been the one to eat the least, weigh the least, and be the best anorexic.  Mixed groups might sometimes be a better alternative. (Bryant-Jeffries Richard, 2006)

Mixed or Heterogeneous Groups Anorexic, bulemic and binge eating groups are prevalent especially in inpatient treatments facilities.  All clients have the common characteristics of self-destructive relationships with food and their bodies.  Combining disorders can be difficult for the leader, but if the group works well benefits are remarkable.  Hearing the painful journey of an anorexic can be helpful for the treatment of a bulemic or vice versa.  Clients within the group look at each other’s strengths and weaknesses and see themselves in each other. A support group usually doesn’t provide therapy, however, provides education and support. (Carolyn C, 1999)

The Role of the Leader in the Group Milieu

The leader in a group has diverse roles to play. He or she encourages members to interact and is viewed as an expert, authority figure and change agent who assesses members’ problems and develops goals. He or she should treat each member in a unique manner. The role of the leader is predominant and there is need to conceptualize the leadership role. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).  Group development is a priority and it requires all members to participate. Determining emerging roles and exploiting them is necessary for group development. People with positive view of relationships will be important. Confrontation may be appropriate in the differentiation stage. Interpretation should not be done at this stage and leaders should look for themes of commonality. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).

Leaders play the role of facilitating the process by which members test themselves and establish their roles while participating in direction of the group. Roles taken may be an initiator, antagonist, clown, synthesizer, mediator, supporter, helper, teacher and attacker

 

Role of the Client in the Group Milieu

During Individuation members become increasingly receptive to psychological exploration that may be intense and painful but will end up being extremely satisfying.

There is need to realize the connections between psychological events and eating behavior. (Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992).  

During Intimacy members become aware of roles played in the group that mirror outside relationships and experience with new behaviors learned in the group.

(Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R, 1992). During Mutuality members experience and acknowledge that they can be important to someone else and accept responsibility for their interactions with others. The meaning of closeness is explored.

Members should participate in group discussion and agree to rules created either by leader or group as a whole. Contracts could be suggested when working with groups that have an eating disorder. Members may agree to maintain a certain weight while in the group and there is need to bond with therapist as well as group members.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Toseland W. & Rivas F. 2001. An Introduction to Group Work Practice 4^th Ed. Allyn & Bacon,Needham Heights,MA

Harper-Giuffre H. & Mackenzie R. 1992. Group psychotherapy for eating disorders.  American Psychiatric Press.WashingtonDC

HartfordE.  1972. Groups in social work.ColumbiaUniversityPress. New York,NY

Seligman M. & Marshak E.  1990. Group Psychotherapy Interventions with Special Populations. Allyn & Bacon Needham Heights,MA

Rutan S. & Stone N. 2001. Psychodynamic group psychotherapy 3^rd Ed. TheGuilford Press.New York,NY

Felix F. & Laroca D. 1986. Eating Disorders: Effective Care and Treatment Ishiyaku Euro America, Inc. Tokyo,Japan.

Bryant-Jeffries Richard. 2006. Counseling for eating disorders in women: person-centered dialogues.OxfordSeattle: Volume: xiii, 173.

Costin Carolyn. 1999. The eating disorder source book: a comprehensive guide to the causes, treatments and prevention of eating disorders, 2nd Edition.Los Angeles,CA,LowellHouse

Arthur Fink.1978. The Field of Social Work, 7th Edition. NY by Holt, Rinehart & Winston

Fascism refers to an authoritarian political ideology that puts national interests ahead of individual and social interests. The term originated inItalywhen it was coined by Benito Mussolini who was an Italian dictator. It was originally applied to the Italian political movement that was in power as from 1922-1943. This movement was steered by Mussolini himself. As a political ideology, fascism seeks to develop economic, cultural and social life of a country basing these on extreme senses of national belongings. Fascism also refers to suppressing or down playing all liberal ideas like democracy, elections, and freedom as well as individual rights. Basically, it seeks to destroy all forms of democracy: Legislature and liberal ideas. As such, the concept is highly connected with right-wing fanaticism, violence, racism and authoritarianism. Etymologically, the term comes from an Italian word ‘fascio’which stands for “union” or “league”.

Fascist movement emerged in European nations. They were also there in former colonial or overseas European territories in the 20^th century. These movements mainly focused and took advantage on the social and political uncertainty that occurred after the wake of the First World War in 1919. It also surfaced itself in Italy during the Russian revolution of 1917. Giovanni Gentile in his book the encyclopedia Italiana, fascism holds that, “The state not only is authority which governs and molds individual wills with laws and values of spiritual life, but it is also a power which makes its will to prevail abroad”. Simply put, fascism is characterized as one party rule, centralized control of financial and industrial institutions by the government. It is also refers to militant nationalism and as that, it advocates for socialism.

The development of fascism ideology in Europe(Roger G. 1991) was greatly influenced by the romantic rebellion against enlightment philosophies in the 19^th and 20^th century. There are various characteristics of fascism: media is sometimes either directly or indirectly controlled by the government in influencing the public opinion, Censorship was very common during war time and is the motivational tools that was used by these governments. Most countries that supported fascism were obsessed with the national security and they highly valued militarism. Military funding exceeded the funding on domestic agenda. Another feature of fascist government was that there was male domination and things like divorce, homosexuality and abortion are suppressed in the name of preserving the family institutions. In fascism, religion and government are inter-woven in that the government uses the most common religions in the country as a tool to manipulate the public opinion of the country. Fascism is also a belief that labor power consolidation is a threat to its existence. Therefore, labor unions are either banned or suppressed. Fascism does not support higher education, Professorship and other academic achievers are either arrested or censored. Finally in fascism governments, elections are fraudulent sometimes they are manipulated or opposition members are assassinated.

As noted above, the best fascist economy if ever there was one was achieved by Mussolini’s regime who said that free markets and freedom must cease to be historical functions. According to Mussolini’s the world is not just the material world. Fascism (Sowett P.S., 2001) grew inItalybecause of two movements: that is, nationalism and syndicalism. The syndicalists maintained that economic institutions should be manned by groups representing workers in various fields especially in crafts and industries while on the other hand, the nationalists after the First World War incorporated the idea of class struggle in the national struggle. Italians believed that a proletarian nation likeItalyhad to unite all its classes for it to win a significant share in the world’s wealth. Before the war, Mussolini was a syndicalist but in the First World War period, he turned to be a nationalist.

From 1922 to 1925, his government pursued a laissez-faire economic policy under his liberal finance minister. Taxes and regulations were reduced and trade restrictions also were reduced. Competition in businesses was promoted but his failure to protect businesses and to provide business subsidy led to alienation of businesses by some of his leaders. For these reasons, he was forced to resign.

Some nations were favored by this nationalism while others were highly affected. In fact only inItalyand inGermanythat fascism succeeded .One good thing about fascism is that crime is significantly reduced because of a very large police force but some people argue that there is no democracy and liberty thus making these governments to lack support from the masses.

During war periods, fascism works well because at this time people need to be directed but when there is no crisis or tension, people prefer democratic leadership. Fascism had greatly influenced many states in the Middle East, Asia Latin America andSouth Africaand is blamed for political crises which were in some countries ofEurope. These governments had already been weakened by political and ideological differences were much affected by the economic depression (Schapiro J. Salaryn, 1949)

Fascism creates gangs of men as a result of its policy to increase the police force. It was against the development of literature, culture and art. This is what resulted to authoritarianism. Another defect of fascism is the way it glorified war and violence. It should be known that no society that is based on fear can survive. It is bound to collapse at any time or to stage a revolution. Fascists created false ideas and believe in national unity. Only among decadent people that regimes of force can survive. It cannot be supported because of the way it criticized those who are educated on the ground that they talked too much without caring about their role. It was the negation of democracy and liberalism. These parties were voted in by many people but never cared for these people. They hold that the masses should always follow their leader.

Fascism thrived inEuropein 1930s as the world entered the world war period. Fascism inGermanywas being used by Hitler who as from 1933 was a German chancellor. After getting to power, Hitler transformed his country in to a war machine. He influenced other European countries to join and to support his forces.

Fascism is great and that is why every country needs nationalism. Hitler was able to exercise his powers and tactics in winning the fight. Fascism is capable of keeping crime level down and keeps the economy stable unlike communism that destroys work incentives. People feel less motivated to work hard because the fruits of their labor are shared amongst all people. Nobody can work extra hard if the returns are equal to all. This is one of the reasons that greatly contributed to the collapse of these governments.

Nazism which was closely related to fascism (Stanley P.G., 1995) had two features which when combined made became destructive and barbaric. These were the Nazi’s myth of natural greatness which held that the country was destined to great power. The other one was the blended romantic ideas with pseudo scientific theories of race natural selection and genetics led to the desire of all German population within other nations. These caused the eruption of unprecedented war accompanied with inhumanity and violence.

In Nazi’s bid to create and make German a new empire, about 6 million people during the 1940s were killed and still others were killed in various conflicts that erupted. The Nazi’s eliminated the disabled, religious minorities and homosexuals thus they failed to protect their citizens. This made people to suffer greatly. Again fascism failed to bring to an end apathy that had developed in its regime for example Mussolini’s regime was unable to fight corruption and violence in his country. He also failed to create a stable political process that would have solved some of the social problems. It was also unable to address the problems thatItalywas facing but instead ledItalyto the war that it was not well prepared for (Brooks T.R., 2002)

After the world war one, the economies of almost all the European nations were destabilized even those that never participated in the war. Fascism become popular inEuropeespecially it attracted attention in papers and radio news though the movement never threatened the existing political system. This took place inCzechoslovakia,Denmark,England,Holland,IcelandNorway,SwedenandSwitzerlandbut it did not materialize as there was no enough electoral support.

Fascism was established inSpain,Portugal,Austria, France Hungary andRomaniabut was never given the atmosphere it would have required in order for it to take shape. It was denied political space which it needed to unveil itself. These movements were resisted by strong coalitions from the radical right- wing. These forces either destroyed or assimilated them thus making conservative regimes to acquire fascism characters so as to become popular.

InSpainthe fascist movement was slowed down and weakened by lack of coherent nationalist historical tradition. In Portugal Antonio de Olivera Salazar; a dictator was the leader of the right- wing authoritarian government in the 1930s that had character traits of a fascist nation. His conservative behavior was not supported by national syndicalism movement. The movement wantedPortugalto be radically transformed by fascism. This never happened because its leader Rolao Preto was sent to exile in 1934 and the national syndicalism was banned.

InAustriafascism never developed roots though Marxist force and Quasi-fascist polarized the politics ofAustria. InFrance, theVichygovernment ensured that the fascist got no support but in other parts Nazi were supported by fascists thoughGermanynever gave these radical forces the full power they needed.

Due to the cooperation, competition and interaction between fascism and other sections of right hybrid movements, regimes were born. Though fascism protects capitalism from collapsing, sometimes it pursues goals that do not go in line with capitalism principles. Fascism is an independent body that has its own social base and has a relationship with elites and the non-fascist right that is complex.

Fascism seeks to acquire power and is not willing to share it with others. This is why a very strong government employs many policemen and a very strong army so that they could hold on to power tightly. As a national movement and regime, it organizes movement for all citizens so as to bring people from all walks of life together to promote integration and control while at the sometime suppressing any resistance that might be there. Fascism never allows class struggle and workers unions as they are threats to national security and unity (Paxton R.O., 2004)

They way fascists approach politics is both populistic, People were united by this movement such that any aggressor who would appear on the way was perceived as an enemy. Sometimes fascism can be said to be good as it brings some form of ideological solidarity and positive change across boundaries but on the other hand it is not gender sensitive as it employs males and leave women out. This creates male dominated societies with little or no respect for women.

Fascism embraces the social Darwinian principle of survival or the fittest. This makes nations to make unwarranted advances against other peaceful nations. Military operations take place and the final results are the imperialism and deaths. By fascism rejecting intelligence and reasoning, they ignorantly destroy the existing social order. This trend is seen in the leadership of Friedrich Nietzsche, Thomas Carlyle and Wagner Richard.

The modern fascism cannot compare with that in the past that was being used by dictators like Hitler and Mussolini. Today’s governments though they use violence, they employ it effectively and not openly. We can’t forget the role fascism played in 20^th centuryEurope in an attempt to bring into shape the literal and non-humanistic perspective of modern technology. We have seen that even though Hitler and Mussolini who were the key players in the field of fascism died, its principles and ideologies are still in use nowadays. The modern version of fascism is referred to as neo-fascism.

References:

Schapiro J. Salaryn, 1949. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism: Social Forces in         English and France (1815-1870)New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Roger G. 1991. The Nature of Fascism.New York: St Martins Press.

StanleyP.G., 1995. A History of Fascism 1914-45.Madison Wisc:University ofWisconsin Press

Paxton R.O.2004. The Anatomy of Fascism.New York. ISBN: 1400040949

Brooks T.R., 2002 The War North of Rome (June 1944 -May 1945) ISBN O785814000

Sowett P.S., 2001 The Italian Army (1943-1945) Osprey Pub Company.

 

There are various methods of valuing a company. Some of these methods include;

1. P/E ratio
2. Dividend valuation model
3. The Present Value of method among others.

The above valuation methods, however, have some advantages and disadvantages as will be seen later in this paper. Therefore it is important that the investors use the method that provide more relevant information and also correct valuation.

Price earning ratio (P/E ratio)

It uses the market price of the share and the earnings per share to determine the value of the company.

P/E ratio = MPS

EPS

The earnings per share of Mallard plc is obtained by dividing the post tax operating cash flow added with the savings/losses and any incomes that may accrue.

 

 

Therefore then adjusted post tax operating cash flow of mallard P/C will be;

Savings/ losses for current year                 £ ‘000’

Employee savings            (after tax)        502.5

Distribution savings          (after tax)        100.5

Redundancy costs                                     (1200)

Directors fees                                            (300)

Saleof buildings               (after tax)        800    

(97)

Post tax operating cash flow                     3551

Less losses                                                 (97)

3454

EPS = adjusted post operating cash flow

Number of ordinary shares

Number of ordinary shares= 500,000 = share capital

0.1       Par value

=5,000,000 shares

Therefore, EPS= 3,454,000

5,000,000             = 0.6908

Consequently, P/E ratio = MPS

EPS

=3.70

0.6908                          =5 times

 

Dividend Valuation Model

There are two models in this method; the constant growth and the non-constant growth.

Constant growth model= DPS1

Ke-g

Where DPS1 = dividend per share in period 1.

Ke = cost of equity

g = dividend growth rate.

In Mallard plc case, the growth rate over the last 5 years is assumed to be the constant growth rate and hence, g=8%.

The DPS1 = DPS X growth rate

= 842,000

5,000,000 = £ 0.1684

Therefore, DPS1 = 0.1684 x 1.08%

= £ 0.181872

The cost of equity, ke, is determined using the capital asset pricing model (CAPM)

Ke= Rf +Be 9Rm-Rf)

Where Rf= Risk free rate

Be= beta of equity

Rm= returns of the market.

Rf =6% (given)

Rm= 14% (given)

Be= 0.8 (given)

Hence, ke = 6+ 0.8 (14-6)

=12.4%

Value of shares DPS1

Ke-g

=0.181872

12.4-8

= £ 4.13345

Present value model

The cash flow is discounted using the firm’s cost of capital. There are 2 methods of discounting i.e. discounting the cash flow related to equity using the cost of equity to determine the value of equity and discounting the cash flows to get the value of the firm using WACC. The discounting rates used can be nominal or real depending on the nature of cash flows (real or nominal).

The assumption in Mallard plc is that the cash flows shown of £3,551, 000 will remain the same over the 10 year period.

 

period	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
post tax op	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551	3551
redundancy	1200
wage savings	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5	502.5
sales of building	800
advert& distributions	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5	100.5
directors fees	-300	-300	-300
	3454	3854	3854	4154	4154	4154	4154	4154	4154	4154

The discounting rate to be used is the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) calculated as follows.

WACC= KeWe + Kd (1-t) Wd

Where ke- cost equity

We –proportion of equity in capital structure.

Kd- cost of debt

Wd- proportion of debt in the capital structure.

Assumption: reserves in balance sheet is capital

= 12.4%x 500 + 11 %( 1-0.33) 3500

4000                                                  4000

= 8%

The above rate of 8% nominal i.e. not adjusted for inflation. The same applies to the cash flows calculated above.

Period     C.F      discounting factor (8%)          PV

1             3454    0.9259                                     3198

2             3854    (2.5771-0.9259) =1.6512        6364

3             3854

4             4154    (6.7101-2.5771) =4.1330=      17,168

5             4154

6             4154

7             4154

8             4154

9             4154

10           4154

PV £26,730,000

The discounting factor of 1.6512 is for period 2-3 while that of 4.1330 is for period 4-10

 

Critical examination of the methods

Price earnings ratio (P/E Ratio)

It is a valuation method that uses the current market price of the shares of the company over its earnings per share. It is an easy valuation method and is calculated as follows.

P/E = MPS

EPS

It really shows the confidence the investors have in the future performance of the company. In other words, how much the investors are willing to pay for shares of the company.

Generally, the higher the P/E ratio, the better the company because it takes a shorter duration for the investors to recover their monies (Equitymaster.com 2002)

This method, however, has some drawbacks which include that fact that it uses profits instead of cash flows and the benchmark to be used is also not clear.

This has led to the formulation of PEG which incorporates the growth rate in the calculation.

Mallard plc P/E ratio of 5:1 is below the industry average of 6:1. It is also less that the average P/E ratio of companies recently taken over of 7:1

Based on these, therefore, it appears Mallard plc is a less attractive as as investment option.

 

Dividend valuation model

This is a method of valuing companies using the dividends paid out.

The general model is as follows,

 

Po= D1+       D2+             …        +    Dn     +    Pn

(1+ke) 1   (1+ke) 2        (1+ke) n    (1+ke) n

Where P1= Dividend at period 1

Pn= price at period n

The redemption price (pn) is also included in the valuation of the shares. The value of the share is arrived at by discounting the dividends and the redemption price. The above formula has lead to the Gordon’s model which is as follows.

For a constant growth rate of dividends;

Po= Do (1+g)

Ke-g                                    (Globusz Publishing 2008)

Gordon’s model, however, has some disadvantages which include the sensitivity if the cost of equity is close to the constant growth rate and also the assumption that cost the equity be more that the growth rate.

The idea that the dividends will grow over the years may not be true and therefore leading to wrong valuation.

Based on the calculations, it indicates that the firm’s shares are under priced i.e. 370 pence as compared to 413 pence using (Gordon’s model) therefore, it is a good buy because when the market realizes that the shares are undervalued, the demand will increase hence a rise in the price.

Present value of cash flow

It is a valuation technique that uses cash flow (future) to determine the value of an investment. The essence is that the future cash flows are discounted to present terms using a discounting rate determined by the company. This method considers the time value concept of money i.e. what is the future cash flows worth now.

Discounted cash flow method also considers the time value of money i.e. the timing of the cash flows is considered.

Cash flows can either be annuities (where the amount received is same over the years) or single amount (where amounts vary over the years)

The single formula is

PV= Fv (single amount) x (1+r)-n

And the annuity amount formula is

PV= Fv (annuity) X 1-(1+r)-n

r

Where =r = discounting rate

n= period

(Solution matrix.com 2008)

Based on the discounted cash flow method, the company can acquire Mallard plc because it is worth £26,730,000 now compared to the initial investment of £22,000,000. The assumptions made may have caused the difference in values arrived at using the three methods.

 

 

Recommendation

Based on P/E ratio, Oakton plc should not acquire Mallard plc because its P/E ratio is lower. Also using the dividend valuation model, the total value will be 5,000, 000 x 4.13345= £ 20,667,250

Hence, Oakton should not pay £ 22,000,000 based on the two methods.

Use of cash or shares

An acquisition can be financed in several ways. Some of which include the use of cash, shares or debt or a combination of either two or all the three methods. In determining which method to use, the tax implications cost of debt and liquidity position of the company is considered.

In using cash, the company should consider whether there is enough cash to meet all other obligations of the company i.e. the company may use all the available cash to finance an acquisition to the detriment of the liquidity position of the company.

The use of an all cash acquisition also can beneficial in that the company will have total control i.e. without ceding shareholding.

If shares are to be used the amount of shares to be used in the acquisition should be considered i.e. if it is authorized by the regulators.

The management of Oakton plc should also consider if they want to cede their ownership of the company in using shares to finance the acquisition.

Advantages of mergers and acquisition

A merger occurs when two companies of almost the same size agree to work together. This is achieved by forming a company to take over the two companies. The company can adopt a new name with the issue of new shares.

An acquisition on the other hand, is when a big company takes over a relatively smaller company. In this use, the smaller company looses its identity to the larger company.

In either case, a merger or acquisition, there are some potential benefits that will accrue to the companies as seen below.

The most apparent benefit of the acquisition of Mallard plc by Oakton plc is the employee reduction and therefore leads to wage savings to the company. In this case, the acquisition will lead to the redundancy of 50 employees at Mallard plc.

The other benefit that will arise from this acquisition is that of diversification. The two companies are in different industries and therefore this leads to diversification. It is obvious that diversification reduces a company’s business risk and hence safeguarding and enhancing the shareholders wealth.

Mergers and acquisitions also lead to economies of scale. An economy of scale is achieved whereby the company is operating and producing on a large scale basis. When a company produces on a large scale basis, there is a reduced cost of production in the sense that the fixed costs are spread over a large number of goods and services.

The other potential benefit is the fact that the company is able to reach new markets thus improving the company’s profit and revenues. The acquisition may lead to the entry in to new markets which may be more profitable and therefore improving the company’s bottom line (profitability).

In a merger or acquisition, the company can also benefit from the acquisition of new technologies from the acquired company. Therefore with new technologies, the company is able to be efficient in its production and hence improved profitability.

The company can also benefit from an acquisition in the sense that it can acquire a company that is considered to have top quality management team and therefore to get the services of these management, the company is forced to acquire the while company.

Strategic alliances in form of mergers also portend another benefit to the company. If company wants to pursue a certain strategy that it cannot accomplish on its own, then it can contemplate an acquisition or a merger in order to achieve that strategy.

      Problems in achieving synergy

Different companies usually have different company culture and norms. This means that in an acquisition or a merger, the combination of the combination of the two companies may create a clash of the cultures and therefore this can lessen the achievement of synergy.

The merging and integration different departments and operations of the two companies can be slow and hence take a longer duration of time. The longer it takes to integrate, the greater loses realized due to lack of cohesion and lost economies of scale.

The company should be able to integrate faster and thereby achieving economies of scale.

The intention of the merger is also another factor that may lead to non-achievement of synergy. If the merger was as a result of defensive strategy i.e. to thwart off a potential takeover, then it may not create necessary synergy that may achieve efficiency in its operations

The management intention of conquests may drive them to acquire companies that may not add value to the company. It is important that the acquisition or merger is driven by sound business strategy and decisions so as to avoid costly mergers and acquisitions.

 

 

Reasons for mergers and acquisitions

Mergers and acquisitions are not only done to achieve corporate diversification but also to realize a whole lot other benefits to the company as discussed below.

A company can merge or acquire another company solely for the purpose of increasing their shareholders wealth if the company is in a fast rising or a lucrative industry.

If a company wants to expand to new markets or territories it can acquire or merge with a company in that market and hence be present in that market without all the obstacles of establishing a new business.

Many small and fast growing companies face the threat of hostile take over by large companies more often and therefore to avoid being taken over, the company can adopt a defensive strategy by acquiring another small company so that it can appear to be big in value and hence thwart off takeovers.

An economy of scale is normally achieved after a merger or acquisition. Economies of scale also lead to reduced costs and improved efficiency.

Acquisition of new technology and new product line is another reason for merger and acquisition (Kontelnikov 2001)

Marriage is the institution where human beings attain a secure environment that enhance proper perpetuation. Human beings marry for various purposes which include procreation, comfort and companionship and for sexual satisfaction which is at times viewed as a basic need. Although there are different types of marriages practiced all over the world for instance polygamy, polyandry polygyny, exogamy and monogamy, the monogamous marriage is most advocated for as it entails the commitment of a man to a woman. Cohabitation entails the living together of mostly a man and a woman without meeting any formal requirements while marriage entails witnesses and is officiated by religious leaders or officers in court. (Smock J and Gupta S, 69).

In marriage as opposed to cohabitation there is the recognition of the intimate relationship between spouses by the government or religious institutions. Civil marriage entails the signing of a contract between spouses. Marriages provide economic, legal and social stability. In most societies married people are respected as they are seen to form a family which is an agency of social control that is crucial in society. Again, through the family the socialization process which is a vital aspect in human beings is attained. Marriages are mostly formalized through wedding ceremonies which can be in religious institutions like churches or by government officials. Marriage ensures that obligations to the participants and their families are created. Most people opt for cohabitation with the thought that the marriage may not work out and the process of nullifying it through divorce is expensive, takes time through the paper work involved and is complicated. (http://www.vifamily.ca/library/cft/cohabitation.htm).

However, the costs faced when cohabitation relationships do not work are more than those faced when married couples divorce. Marriage has more benefits than cohabitation.

It enriches the relationship between a spouse and the in-laws and in case of the death of a partner they can help in rising of children bore. Inheritance of property that spouses have acquired overtime is easier when spouses are legally married than when they are just cohabiting. There are cases where people could be cohabiting for years, bear children and generate wealth collectively but due to lack of documentation or legal evidence that such had worked together a partner may bear the burden of raising the children alone without the wealth they accumulate collectively if one dies. (Whitehead D. and Popenoe D, 13)

At times marriages identify the legal parent of the child and this creates some form of responsibility for the children by each spouse. It is easier to walk away and fail to support the children when relationships do not work out if people are cohabiting than when they are married. Civil marriages can only be nullified trough divorce which is done in courts. The legal process entails the consent of both spouses and interests of children are catered for. Unlike in cohabitation where such children may suffer when their parent’s relationship turns sour, marriages also ensure that division of property earned together is well divided. Marriages therefore provide greater human capital for children the cohabitation relationships. Marriages call for more commitment as compared to cohabitation which can be terminated by a simple and informal agreement between the spouses. Without the legal consent in the division of property conflicts may arise in the cohabitation relationships.

In marriages a higher earning spouse may have the obligation of supporting a lower earning spouse even after they have separated or divorced. This ensures that the lifestyle a partner is used to is not much affected. Fall from ‘grace to disgrace’ if such were not the case could lead to additional emotional problems for the negatively affected spouse. This is a plus if children are involved. Without a legal contract for the provision of such support in cohabitation relationships such does not occur. Emotional problems may be aggravated by financial crisis that would arise after a break up. Married people tend to perform better in terms of their well being than those who are cohabiting. (Thompson E et al, 228)

Cohabitation relationships do not offer spouses the right to make important decisions upon the illness of their partners. On the contrary married spouses have the right to make decisions on behalf of their partners especially if they are incapacitated to do so. Such decisions could involve health or financial matters where there could be urgency in addressing them. In cohabitation, a partner may be forced to seek the consent of family members or such decisions. Health matters could entail signing of a partner’s operation which could be urgent and before the family members are sought more damage could have occurred. (Wu Z.and Hart R, 429)

Paternity of children bore out of cohabitation may through blood tests and legal action while in the case of a marriage. Such are seen as the offspring’s of the spouses. This creates a secure environment for both the children and their families. In cohabitation children may be emotionally affected when their paternity has to be sought through legal action and their fathers forced to assist them financially since in most cases they only offer such assistance voluntarily. (Thompson E et al, 239)

In most cases spouses first cohabit before they marry. This can be seen as a ‘trial marriage’ and has been increasing over the years. It is however not a guarantee that a successful cohabitation relationships leads to a stable or more fulfilling marriage. There is less commitment in cohabitation relationships and some support it for convenience purposes like reduced costs due to cost sharing and attainment of sexual obligations without “strings attached”. Installing the conditions that one can walk out of relationships if they are not working increases the chances of divorce even in future. Cohabitants want to have the ‘bigger piece of cake’ with few responsibilities. They fear the permanent vows that marriages call for. Such partners may feel that there could be greener pastures out there and their chances of commitment are negatively inclined.

Trust may be highly attained in marriages than in cohabitation relationship. Cohabitants tend to value their independence and cannot be questioned over how they operate in terms of sexual life, expenditure or property ownership. This may work to further distance the spouses creating more chances for break ups and negligent behavior. For marriages, the unity and responsibility of a spouse ‘moves’ or ‘whereabouts’ blends the two into an intimate and responsible relationship. Married spouses take control over their partners activities be they sexual, labor or property ownership. (Manning D and Lichter T, 1006)

With lesser commitment for marriage cohabitants may opt for divorce as the only viable solution to their problems furthermore there is little to lose and since it is a trial marriage it can fail. To some cohabitation acts as a testing ground for marriage. For the married, they are committed to making the marriage work and with the costs attached to divorce they may opt to seek consultations from professionals or would try to understand each other better through dialogue to solve their problems.

(http://www.americancatholic.org/Newsletters/CU/ac0603.asp)

Marriages pose a higher chance for marital satisfaction as they are more committed to their spouses, while cohabitants are not fully contented and have conditional relationships.  With lesser commitment and marital satisfaction they may be more prone to unfaithfulness than the married spouses, unfaithfulness would lead to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases especially the dreaded HIV AIDS. Cohabitation especially with multiple partners is very dangerous. Again it creates more insecurity which does not benefit the related parties in whichever way. (Popenoe D and Whitehead B, 60)

Children of cohabitants may experience poorer emotional development than of married parents as the parent’s insecurity may be transferred to the children. Married couples could offer better and safer environment for their children free from abuse which is likely to occur when parents are cohabiting with boyfriends who are not their biological parents. The biological father is less likely to physically, emotionally or sexually abuse his own children compared to a boyfriend. The children could also have their education or academic excellence negatively affected. (Whelan R, 50)

Married partners are financially better off compared to cohabitants. This is more so due to the fact that they can monitor each others moves. Married partners are more likely to spend their money as per the budget they have set together and they can easily caution or curb impulse buying. Again they can discuss their investment plans and given that ‘two heads are better than one’ they are more likely to thrive. (Le Bourdais C. and Juby H, 115)

Married men are more likely to advance in their career and can be more innovative to attain or fulfill their added responsibilities unlike single men. Married women are also more likely to access a higher share of their partners’ earnings that cohabitant women would. Team work between spouses would work to help the spouses meet their career as well as financial goals.

Security offered in marriage poses additional mental as well as physical gains as with the thought that someone will always s be  there for  you ‘for better or for worse’ they are able to face life’s uncertainties with much confidence. Married coupes are also better connected with the wider society from which they can attain support if need be for instance from in laws or religious leaders. The support could be emotional, social or material. Cohabitation on the other hand could be considered as immoral by the society or family members and seeking their assistance may not be sought. This not only affects the relationship with the parents but also creates more emotional problems for cohabitants who may lack ‘a shoulder to lean on when need arises. Marriages also provide visible social linkages. (Waite L and Gallagher M, 30)

Marriage benefits to children and the spouses involved by far outweighs the benefits that cohabitation has. Cohabitation is inadequate in provision of financial and emotional support that partners would be looking for in their spouses. (Manning D and Lichter T, 999). Commitment improves on trust and faithfulness which are very important in the raising of children. Marriage is better than cohabitation as one can better enjoy the purposes of their union with a spouse. Working together would see couples advance and they can easily meet their obligations without constraints. A married person will be more secure and therefore better in terms of health than a cohabitant. Cohabitation is also seen as an arrangement that drains away the religious aspects of family life. Family life should not be an experiment or a disposable institution but should be permanent.

 

Works cited:

 Thompson E, Hanson T, & McLanahan S. Family structure and child well-being: Economic resources versus parental behaviors. Social Forces, 73, 1994.p 221-242.

 

Manning D and Lichter T. Parental cohabitation and children’s economic well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 1996. P 998-1010.

 

Le Bourdais C. and Juby H. The impact of cohabitation on the family life course in contemporaryNorth America: Insights from across the border In Booth A and Crouter C. Just living together: Implications of cohabitation on families, children and social policy .Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.2001. P 107-118.

 

Smock J and Gupta S. Cohabitation in contemporaryNorth America. In A. Booth and A.C. Crouter Eds. Just living together.Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum .2002 p. 53-84

 

Wu Z.and Hart R. The effects of marital and nonmarital union transition on health. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 2001. P 420-432.

 

Linda Waite and Maggie Gallagher. The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially .NewYork: Dou-bleday. 2000. P 46.

 

David Popenoe and Barbara Whitehead. Should we live together? What young adults need to know about cohabitation before marriageNew Brunswick,NJ: The National Marriage Project.1999.p 60.

 

Whelan R .Broken homes and battered children: A study of the relationship between child abuse and family type.London: Family Education Trust. 1993. p 50.

 

Anne-Marie Ambert. Cohabitation and marriage. How are they related.2004.Retrieved on 11^th January 2008 from http://www.vifamily.ca/library/cft/cohabitation.html.

 

Waite, L. and Gallagher, M., The Case for Marriage: Why Married People are Happier, Healthier, and Better Off Financially,New York: Doubleday, 2000, p. 46.

 

Whitehead D. and Popenoe D. Sex without strings, relationships without rings. The State of Our Unions, The Social Health of Marriage in America, The National Marriage Project, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 2000, p. 13.

 

Joseph M. Champlin. Cohabitation before Marriage retrieved on 11th January 2008 from

http://www.americancatholic.org/Newsletters/CU/ac0603.asp

 

Theses:

1. (A) What are the reasons that made colonialists to exploit slave labor?

(b) Why slavery was considered inhuman and why was it abolished?

2. (a) What are the factors that contributed to the emergence of civil rights in the                         United States of America?

(b) In what ways did the African Americans fight for their civil rights?

3.  (c) What was the role of the federal government in the fight for civil rights?

(b) What were the constitutional changes that were made to guarantee the civil                                    rights for the Blacks?

The history of civil rights can be attributed to the slavery business that took place sometimes back in the 17^th century. To be precise, this business started in North America atJamestown,Virginia in may 1607. It was the severity of the harshness that was directed to the slaves by their colonial masters that precipitated to the demand for civil rights.  This chapter of civil rights was closed with the enactment of civil rights act of 1964 which was spearheaded by Martin Luther King junior.

Civil rights trace their origin to slavery when slaves were mistreated by their masters. Slavery as I mentioned earlier, started inJamestown,Virginiain a place where there were a lot of hills and climate was totally unfriendly. Here human slaves could not survive. It is because of the harshness of this environment that there appeared one of the great sectional differences in American history. This happened because the north stopped relying on slaves and started harnessing the Yeoman laborers who mostly worked for money freely without being forced to work in these plantations but on the other hand, the southerners who totally relied on slaves were against the moves being advanced by the North.

The Africans who were got from Central and Southern Africa (Feelings T., 1995) were taken in chains to what later came to be referred to as the southernUnited States. They provided cheap and reliable labor as well ad agricultural products to the southernAmerica. They were the main contributors to the economic growth of the South. During the independence declaration period in 1776, there were about half a million blacks in American colonies. The agitation for human rights started when Thomas Jefferson who dealt with slaves inVirginiacondemned the human slave trade. His sentiments were downplayed so as to win support of the Southern colonies in the fight againstGreat Britain.

The issue of slavery was confronted well inUSA20 years after the constitution was drafted. This happened inPennsylvaniain the summer of 1787 when the federal constitution was being drawn. It was agreed that slavery would continue on condition that each slave would be counted as 3/5 of a person for the sake of knowing the number of representatives each stat e could have in the lower house, the national congress and in  the house of representatives.

The gap between the South and the North continued to widen all through the 1800s due to the issue of slavery. As new colonies were expanded to the West across theNorth America, severe political battles were fought. Finally in 1860 after Abraham Lincoln was chosen to be the president ofAmerica, the southern states pulled themselves away from the union than risk witnessing slavery institution being abolished by the U.S congress inWashington.Lincolnrefused to let the South to continue to enjoy slavery. He refused them to go in their own direction in peace and this resulted to the eruption of the civil war between the South and the North. Those in the south colonies were much afraid of the eventual emancipation of slaves (Brion D.D., 2003)

After the civil war, another wave came into place which was called the Reconstruction period that started from 1865 up to 1877.  This period was geared towards solving political, social and economic problems that were brought about by the American civil war. After Lincoln Abraham was assassinated in April 1865, Andrew Johnson further alienated the congress by furthering Lincoln’s policies which were seen as moderate. He led to the passage of the 14^th congress amendment so as the blacks should be seen asUSA citizens. This move was ratified in 1966 though the majority of southern colonies rejected it. Despite all the resistance from the Southern colonies, the North managed to win in the 1866 congress election.

It is this victory that ushered in the era of reconstruction period which is sometimes called the radical reconstruction period that lasted for ten years. Under this 1866 registration, the ten remaining southern colonies were divided in to 5 military districts that were to be supervised by the USAarmy. Later they were all readmitted. Before admission in to the union each state had to accept the 14^th amendment or if any state was re-admitted after the passage of the 14^th constitutional amendment, then they were forced to accept the 15^th constitutional amendment that guaranteed the freedom of all freedmen. The ruling government which was basically republican in character it was made up of African Americans or the blacks, the northerners or what was called the carpet baggers and the southerners and the southerners who collaborated with the republicans or what was referred who collaborated with the republicans. The southerners that were white refused to recognize their counterparts from the north and continued showing them open hostility and totally opposed their moves.

The reconstruction period can be divided in to 3 phases namely: Presidential Reconstruction (1863 to 1866) that was spearheaded by Abraham Lincoln; the second one was Congressional Reconstruction 1866-73. This was all about civil rights and voting rights for the freedmen. The 3^rd phase was called the Redemption Period (1873-1877) that was steered by the southern democrats who referred to themselves as Redeemers. They defeated the republicans and assumed control of the southern states marking the end of the reconstruction period.

After this reconstruction period, what resulted was the Jim Crow era. These laws were laws that imposed racial segregation. They were mainly applied in the South and they were got from the black codes that were used from 1865 to 1866 and from prewar-segregation on railroads cars. The blacks enjoyed the rights that had been passed during the reconstruction period in the 13^th 14^th and 15^th amendments and the civil rights act of 1875.

Jim Crow laws (Brion D.D., 2003) were enacted in the USA and were in use as from 1876 and what they meant is that African Americans were to be separated from whites though they were to be seen as equal to them in terms of their status. What this meant is that they received treatment that was different from that of the whites. They were seen as inferior to the whites. These laws and rules demanded that there should be separate buildings, restaurants and toilets in schools, recreational places and in public transportation; one for the blacks and the other one for the whites. The Jim Crow rules were different from black codes in that the later were against the civil rights and liberties of blacks inAmerica. A good example of where Jim Crow laws were applied is inAlabamawhere all passengers’ stations were to have two separate waiting rooms and tickets windows, one for the whites and the other one for the colored races. Another example is ofArkansaswhere from 1884-1947 marriage between the whites or any other relationship between whites and mulattoes or the blacks was totally prohibited. Also from 1891-1959, washroom in mines rail travel, buses or simply in all public transport, they were separated between the whites and the blacks. This also applied in schools, hospitals and in colleges.

The same case applied inFloridawhere marriage between the whites and the blacks was not condoned and children for the whites were to be treated separately from the blacks. InGeorgiano person was supposed to serve the whites and blacks in one room or even serve the two races under one license. InLouisiana, nobody was allowed to rent a building or a room to a white when the other rooms were being occupied by the other race or vice versa. If you were convicted of committing this crime, you were to be punished by paying a fine of not less than twenty five US dollars and not beyond hundred US dollars. These laws were also applied inMississippi,Maryland,Missouri,New Mexico,North Carolina, Oklahoma South Carolina,Texas, and inVirginia.

These laws that were passed by the Redeemer government after the end of reconstruction period were reinforced and formalized during the progressive era by the then president of USA Woodrow Wilson in 1913. After 1945, the civil rights movement which was geared towards elimination of Jim Crow rules gained a new impetus.

They started using various federal courts in the continent to confront those laws that were applied and reinforced by a group of secret organization or a group that referred itself as the Klu Klux Klan. These men lynched, tortured and punished those blacks who contravened the rule of law.

These laws started being attacked properly in 1954 when the supreme court ofAmericadeclared segregation in all public schools as unconstitutional or illegally mandated. This move begun in 1950 when the NAACP their attorneys worked on a case of desegregation in school in Charleston S.C. this was heard together with other similar cases from Delaware, Virginia, Kansas as well as from the district of Columbia under one blanket cover-brown vs. board of education of Topeka. Here the NAACP lawyers and Thurgood marshal argued and condemned segregation in schools up to the end. Finally they won this case.

In1954 Brown school and the board of officials in little rock school board decided to have Central High School desegregated in 1957 and the governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus ordered his national guards to support the board in keeping the African American students away from school. However, President Eisenhower sent his federal guards and paratroopers to reinforce the desegregation orders of the federal courts in 1957.

In 1955, the civil rights movement was staged and dubbed as the Montgomerybus boycott. This was both a political and social protest against the city’s policy of bus segregation. This sparked off on 1^st December 1955 when Rosa Parks refused to give her seat to a white man on a city bus for this reason, Parks was arrested for defying this social etiquette and this led to the eruption of the modern civil rights movement. This bus boycott case helped in confronting the segregation laws by opening a wave of protest across the South (Hossel K.P., 2005)

During thisMontgomerybus boycott, all those people who were affected by these segregation laws refused too ride in those segregated buses which were the only means of transport. These people had to sacrifice themselves to walk for long miles in harsh weather rather that go on buses.

Also in 1960 four freshmen students fromNorth Carolinaagricultural and technical college went to the F.W Woolworth store. They sat quietly waiting to be served but they were not served. In the following day they came with 25 more students. Weeks later, similar demonstration erupted elsewhere. AtShawUniversityinNorth Carolina, students formed SNCC or student’s non-violent coordinating committee.

In 1960s there were freedom riders who were organized by CORE: Congress of Racial Equality. The move sought to promote integration of bus, rail as well as airport terminals. On August 28, 1963 (Haskins J., 2004) all the blacks marched toWashingtonin an effort to draw the nation’s attention. It is here that the most revered preacher Dr. Martin Luther king junior that he delivered his ‘I have a dream’ speech. In 1965 voting rights act was created which elevated the status of black American after the 1964 civil rights act.

From this paper, we can conclude by saying that were it not for the constant pressure from the blacks in the fight for their civil rights, then blacks inAmericawould be slaves and oppressed just like in the past. The more they aired their grievances to the federal government, the more their lives positively changed, it all stated with the abolition of slavery then separate but equal and finally as free and equal citizens in 1964 while in 1965 they got their right to vote. It is this right that politically changed their lives.

Reference:

Hossel K.P., 2005. I have a dream – voices of freedom. Heinemann.

Haskins J., 2004. The march on Washington. JustUS books.

Brion D.D., 2003. Challenging the Boundaries of Slavery. Mass:HarvardUniversity         Press.

Feelings T., 1995. The Middle Passage: White Ships and Black Cargo.New York. Dial     Books.

Question One

Radical transformations were witnessed in the United States following a mass influx of the Jewish community evidenced in the 20^th century.

The first wave of Jewish community immigration dates back to the 19^th century between 1880 and 1920, when Jews from Eastern Europe were migrating to America alongside their Russian counterparts. Despite the big role that Jews had played in shaping the cultural norms in Eastern Europe, the danger posed to them by eminent annihilation necessitated their migration. This was the key reason behind their exodus. Despite this region being multi ethnic, the dynasty of the Russian czars had been to the detriment of this community who became the soft target by the repressive regimes. They had been secluded and alienated due to the broad differences they had with other communities largely emanating from religion and language. They had not been accepted socially and politically as Russians. The regimes were very repressive and the laws punitive to the Jews not allowing them to make a living (Takaki, Ronald, 1993).

They were also targets of hostility from the non-Jewish communities. The assassination of Czar in 1881 was the last straw that broke the camels back and could see the intensification of violence and hostility towards the Jewish community that was being falsely accused of conspiring to the assassination. Russian soldiers and other non-Jewish peasants renewed an onslaught on the Jews. This is the reason behind the movement of Jews out of Eastern Europe towards the United States in droves to escape the eminent annihilation. Thousands of Jews would escape Russia and other parts of Eastern Europe in clear defiance of the anti immigration law conveniently put in place to curb their influx out of Europe.

A look at the immigration pattern and reasons by Jews in to America reveals a great variance from those of their counterparts the Japanese, Chinese and the Irish. The Irish, for example were moving out of Ireland to escape hunger and famine that was threatening to wipe out a large portion of the community. The Irish, Japanese and the Chinese were moving out of their homes the United States in search of greener pastures and not being motivated by hostility at home.

One major difference that exists between these three groups from the Jews was that their rate of return to Eastern Europe was non-existent. The Jews had vowed to move out but not return to their homeland. They were in search of peace and tranquility in the United States and had no plans of going back. The other groups like the Chinese and the Japanese had come to the United States to make a living, hoping to repatriate back and build their motherland through repatriation. The Eastern Europe Jews also chose to remain in one area where they could carry on with their own way of life and religion. This community became close knit.

Unlike the other immigrants, they also arrived in droves, in great numbers not witnessed before. Between 1900 and 1915 over one and a half million Jews had migrated to the united state with many more landing afterwards

 

Question Two.

The United States of America has a history of discriminating against immigrants, these ranging from the Chinese Japanese and the Irish. Although the hostility faced by the Jews was not as pronounced as that of some others like the Chinese, they to were not left behind. The United States was particularly categorical about the immigration of the Chinese, even having passed an act outlawing their immigration There was a growing sense of anti Semitism spreading across the areas they chose to settle in. At the early times of the civil war, one general Ulysses S. Grant had ordered the removal of Jews from the states where the early immigrants had camped in, ranging from Mississippi and Tennessee. This was as a result of the divisions that existed between the Jewish community that settled in the north and those that settled in the south and their perceived support for against slave ownership. This however was to be retracted later by the United States president Abraham Lincoln.

The twentieth century, witnessed increased discrimination against the Jews. This discrimination was extending to areas such as employment and schools. They were not allowed to join the exclusive member clubs. They were facing quotas in the institutions of learning as well as not being allowed to possess some properties

Contrary to other minority groups that immigrated to the United States, Jews rarely had any hostility or violence turned against them. The Ku Klux Klan and hate speeches in the radio stations had heightened tension against the Jewish community during the interwar period. Of late, the African- American community poses the greatest source of discrimination, accusing the Jews of exploitation (Takaki, Ronald, 1993).

The immigration and assimilation of the Jewish community has not been a smooth fete. The interwar period was marked by a period of momentary anti-Semitism. The United States was undergoing social and economic upheavals consequenced by the Great Depression. Henry Ford is in record as having publicly and blatantly issued remarks against the Jews aimed at questioning their patriotic sense. Individuals also holding high public offices could also be heard to be issuing anti-Semitic sentiments. This would lead to the Jewish community coalescing around welfare organizations and associations for their own defense. These are some of the factors that would impede on the assimilation process of the Jewish community.

At the moment, however, intermarriages in the United States have led to intense assimilation and attitude changes from the rest of the communities. They continue to prosper, politically and economically and have become dispersed geographically, moving out of their stronghold in New York to other areas such as California.

Reference

Takaki, Ronald (1993). A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America. New York: Back Bay Books.