Cloning is defined as the creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another. This means that every single bit of DNA is the same between the two organisms. Cloning can be done through artificial twining and somatic cell nuclear transfer. In this paper we are concerned with reproductive cloning as there are other types like recombinant DNA tech & therapeutic cloning.

 

Purpose of reproductive cloning is to produce the genetic twin of another organism. Ethical controversies

Cloning has led to all sorts of controversies which include moral controversy- like are  scientists morally right to use whatever technologies they think is possible for humanity? Are scientists transcending the boundaries of human ‘freedom’? But others may argue here that man was given authority over the earth by God. We have to accept that before successful cloning is achieved many mistakes have to be made a long the way-for instance, human beings with serious deficiencies will be created.(Dudley, 2001) This may go against the human right of the cloned and again the human clone may not have his own identity since he/she is a replica of another.

McGee (assistance professoruniversityofPennsylvaniancenter for bioethics) argues that cloning allows the child to be born of only one genetic parent, changing the idea of a parent, child family and the idea for a community. Again scientists are accused of murder as they kill embryos to carry their ‘money and fame seeking’ ideas. ( Kass & James, 1998).   In cloning, scientist may alter a baby’s genetic code to give the individual a certain genetic resistance and so on. This is tampering with “mother nature”.My position on cloning is that the risks involved in cloning are way far too many as compared to its pros. So reproductive cloning should be banned as it goes against the ethics. The cons are too many and justifying or permitting cloning is like permitting the violation of human rights.

I believe every individual has a right to own his/her identity. By reproducing an exact replica, we are denying such individuals their right to uniqueness which then denies them identity. Again cloning transcends human boundaries and taps into a field that is otherwise a reserve for God.

The cons of cloning

It is believed that cloning may reduce genetic variability and this runs the risks of producing an entire population with same traits. This population would be vulnerable to same traits. This population would be population with same traits. This population would be vulnerable to same diseases and one disease may devastate the entire population. Cloning may cause people to settle for the best existing animals. In this way cloning would interfere with natural evolution as it does not allow improvement of specie. cloning is completely wrong as it will involve hundreds of damaged pregnancies to achieve one single live cloned baby. Evidence suggests that clones are unhealthy and often have a number of built-in genetic defects which lead to premature ageing and death and is likely to result in unscrupulous dealings as people might be cloned unwillingly.

Lastly, the dignity of human life and genetic uniqueness we all have would be attacked if cloning become commonplace. (Goodnough, 2003).

Religious beliefs: the Catholic Church and various traditionist religious groups oppose all form of cloning on the ground that life begins at conception. (Cole-Turner, 1997).  Most Christians feel cloning is like “playing God” and interfering with the natural process. Christians believe that only God has the power to create living creature and for man to create life is blasphemous. Creation of life is a reverse for God and humanity should not trespass. Again cloning is an attempt to bring immortality which is wrong. Are scientists challenging God?

Legal implication: the USA president (Clinton) shortly after Dolly was born, gave instruction that no federal funds were to be used for cloning of human beings. He also introduced a bill in to congress known as the cloning prohibition bill. May be due to the legal implications of cloning which include; inheritance of property, for instance, suppose that ‘P’ makes a will leaving all of his property to the children’ and then a child ‘K’ is cloned from ‘P’. Is ‘K’ P’s child?  Yes. But then K will also be the child of ‘P’s’ own parents, who may well have made a similar will and whose estate may by now have been distributed. Or what if ‘P’ and his wife ‘L’ enter in to mutual wills and agree to leave everything to our children. But ‘K’ is lot ‘L’s child? Again, to what extent should contracts to cloning be legally enforced?

Medical errors: Reproductive cloning is highly inefficient. The embryos do not always survive and more than 90% fail to produce viable offspring. Cloned animals tend to have more compromised immune function and higher rates of tumor growth, infections and other disorders. Japanese studies have proved that cloned mice live in poor health and die earlier. In analyzing more than 10,000 liver and placenta cells of cloned mice researcher in 2002 (Whitehead institute,Massachusetts) discovered that 4% of genes function abnormally. These and other risks exist.

Those who are for cloning say that cloning is a technological conversion of a natural process, but such a stance goes against what is morally and religiously acceptable. With cloning, man oversteps the boundary and is blasphemous to God. An infertile couple producing a clone of themselves is seen as a pro but the clone may not like the fact that he/she wasn’t born naturally like others. The idea of a man being a creation of man may not go down well with such a creation. It also nullifies the role of God.

Reproducing of superior like Einstein may not be good anymore as the clone may not have exact characteristics and even if he did, science has advanced and he may not be of help any more. Lastly, this reduces diversity and creates monotony. Who likes monotony?

Questions

1)      How can those for cloning resolve the legal issues of cloning such as mentioned above?

2)      Why should we endeavor in creating an unhealthy person?

3)      Is man trying to challenge God? Or doing away with Him?

4)      Are we justified to kill tens of lives to create one life?

5)      What if cloning can result in a monstrous child who can be a threat?

Closing argument: Cloning has the potential of being a means to his suffering just like other cases of advancement and development. We cannot per se term cloning as good since as we have seen reproductive cloning has a whole list of negative socio-moral implications. Insisting on cloning depicts one as insensitive and out of his wits.

 

References

1. Cole-Turner, (Ed) (1997). Human cloning: religions response:Louisville,KY:           West minister John Knox press.

2. Dudley, W (2001). The ethics of human cloning.San Diego,CA:

Green haven press,

3. Goodnough, D. (2003). The debate over human cloning: a pro/con issue.

Einslow publisher Inc 2003

4. Kass, L, R. & James, Q. W.(1998). The ethics of human cloning .Washington;

the AEI press,

 

Relationships with other people are a must for human beings who are social beings. Self-acceptance precipitates effective communication with others and consequently good relationships with other people. To achieve the goals I have in life I will have to interact with people some of whom we have shared goals. Self-understanding is vital in maintaining such relationships. Critical self-awareness helped me establish my weaknesses and how to react to them accordingly. It also enabled me to establish my strengths and how I can use them to mould my weaknesses. Nobody is perfect and the areas one is weaker in could be the areas another finds strength from.

People are from diverse backgrounds and consequently they may be difficult to deal with. Being patient with other people would help me to better appreciate their viewpoints or ideologies. Different cultural backgrounds translate to diversity in reasoning, perspectives and ideologies. Patience with others also creates room for lesser conflicts with people and this contains emotional balance. It is important to appreciate that people are different, with diverse views or ideologies and will hence argue differently. This knowledge will help me appreciate other peoples’ views without finding them too vague or feeling skeptical (John Hayes 2002).

The least surprising thing I learnt is that I have no control over my environment and I have to adapt to suit in it. My weakness forms a part of me and I cannot do away with it. Everyday is a new day with new experiences to help mould my personality. Interactions with other people will enable me to improve on my skills, knowledge and talent and will therefore be a plus to my strengths.

Self-disclosure or openness is an appropriate measure in maintaining and developing relationships. Self-disclosure will encourage ones approachableness, as people will not be scared away. Care should however be taken to ensure that openness or self-disclosure is not beyond the limits or out to reach. Opening up extremely would work to scare people away while little or no disclosure may hinder effective interaction with other people who may be beneficial in developing my strengths.

Trustworthiness is another important value that should be adapted. Developing and maintaining trust will tighten the bond or rather improve my relationship with other people. Effective interactions or relationships will enable me to gain from others. People are more willing to disclose their ideas, thoughts, feelings and reactions to those they trust. I can learn more from other people’s thoughts, feelings and reactions if I initiate and maintain trust. Effective communication is very crucial in maintaining relationships. It is through communication that one learns of new ideas, concepts and other people’s feelings.

Communication allows me to develop by learning from other people’s weaknesses and strengths. One can improve on the weaknesses as they exploit their strengths. Being direct also entails effective communication where one does not have to beat around the bush when passing across information. Again, it enables one to attain appropriate knowledge and hence react accordingly. For instance, one can learn of his/her weaknesses through the people one interacts with (Johnson, D.W., 2003).

The most surprising thing I learnt from the self-awareness exercise was that being critical to detail and keen is very important as it works to overcome biases that may arise from quick judgments. I can learn more by being critical to my surrounding and being keen to learn. I can be able to understand other people better and hence improve our relationship. Communication is better when I understand others well.  Being critical will enable me to focus on my strengths and this will help me maximize on my positive personality. I will be selective in choosing what is worth more attention and hence beneficial to my progress and what should get less attention. (Johnson, D.W., 2003)

Being keen will enable me to learn fast and overlook my weaknesses to acquire those things that will add value to my work and education. Adapting to new environments would be easier if I am keen and critical. I will be able to better understand others and be more accommodative thus developing my skills, talents and intelligence through the interactions. Flexibility is also crucial in adapting to new situations as they arise. I can better adjust to fit into new environments and by being keen and critical, I will be able to learn and improve on my talents. Flexibility will enable me interact well in the job place and in school.

 

References

John Hayes 2002, Interpersonal skills at work, Rutledge.

Johnson, D.W. (2003). Reaching out: Interpersonal effectiveness and self-actualization.

8^th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

 

There has been an argument about drugs trafficking in the US Mexico border. It has been said that with effective and sustained financial aid from US,Mexicoshould be able to dramatically reduce drug trafficking and the violence it generates. I disagree with this idea because the origin and history of drug trafficking along the US-Mexico border indicates that not onlyMexicois responsible butUSAis also responsible for drug trafficking. Though US financial aid may help to reduce some of the problem, it cannot decrease demands and consumption of drug inUSAandMexicoand in turn reduce drug trafficking. I believe strongly that the root cause of drug problem in Mexico- USA border is insatiable demand and consumption by theUSpopulation.

The drug trafficking laws (Dunn T.J., 1996) had their source in smuggling of various narcotics in the end of 19^th and early part of the 20^th century. At this time, US joined a dozen other nations to sign up the Opium International Convention as opium was the only drug that was used mostly.Mexico also ratified this decision. Later in 1914, US altered the law so that it could start charging tax on opium and its derivatives. The new act was called Harrison Narcotic Act. Anybody found in illegal possession of opium and its derivatives was charged by the federal government.USA stepped its efforts to curb illegal possession of opium by declaring that addicts of narcotics could not be prescribed with drugs. This forced these addicts to start operating black markets in order to get these drugs. Here we can see clearly this high demand by addicts and opium consumption in US led to drug trafficking.

To take advantage of the new market in US, Mexicans, Chinese and European Americans started operating along the borders in rings, partnership or in gangs. This led to an increase in the role of Mexican cities as centers of these businesses. It is the demand that led the smugglers, border bootleggers and traffickers to increase their efforts along the border. In 1959s due to the effects of opium usage and social problems, various narcotic acts were passed like Boggs act of 1951 and the narcotic act of 1956. They were meant to give police and prosecutors powers to deal with the increasing number of drug users. By this timeMexicohad taken a firm stand against opium but the laws became ineffective due to the high demand for drugs by the consumers which guaranteed ready market to the supplies. Therefore, the root cause of these drugs is the high demand and the ready market was available.

The proliferation of drug use and trafficking in US (Dunn T.J., 1996) was because ofUSAunrealistic policies about drug abuse.USAdrug war budget in 2005 was 20 billion dollars while in 1981 it was 2 billion dollars.Mexicohas accused byUSAof increased drug trafficking smuggling and usage. This is attributed to the heavy investment it has and increased militarization in the border.USAfelt thatMexicowas not doing enough to fight against drug abuse. They hoped that if trade and tourism was interrupted along the border, thenMexicowould feel the pinch because there would be fewer customers. They accusedMexicoof failing to fight drugs. They tightened their borders so thatMexicowould change its position on conflicts inCentral Americaas well as in other foreign policies.Mexicodid not welcome this idea but continued pursuing its independent policies and harshly criticizedUSAfor its failure to address the main causes of the drug problems. These are the insatiable demand for drugs and high consumption in theUSA.

InMexico, due to the lack of enough funds and training of police forces and the weakness of the judicial system, criminals who arm themselves with crude weapons know that there is no chance of them being caught and punished. There have been cases where the perpetrators wear police uniforms and drive vehicles that resembled those of the police casting doubts whether police were not involved in the crime (Dunn T.J., 1996)

USAhas been issuing warnings toMexicothrough its emissary inMexicoblaming it for not working hard enough to end the state of lawlessness. TheMexicogovernment rejected this and accused them of fostering this state of lawlessness.

Mexicocalled upon both governments to work constructively in combating the crime. TheUSgovernment was accused of its failure to control dangerous weapons which are used. For these reasons,Mexicoshould not be blamed alone for its failure to control these drug businesses.

Effective and sustained financial assistance from US cannot fully help to reduce drug trafficking and violence that it generates but still it can help. For example if it is provided, more policemen could be trained and put along the borderline where this illegal business takes place. They would be able to control the flow of illegal arms that are used by these drug dealers. It is also true that people whose per capital income is very low and their health and social problems are increasing daily are the ones who deal with drugs. So if US could offer financial aid could be channeled to this end. I think drug business would drop significantly though not completely. No matter how much aidUSgovernment can channel, the problem cannot be solved because the root causes are not addressed. These are demand and consumption, business thrives because where there are many consumers hence high demand.

For the fight against drug to be effective, both government should stop blaming each other and work on modalities to solve this problem for once and for all. The Mexican government should take a firm stand on these drug dealers just likeUSA. Also, US should stop blamingMexicoand address the conditions that are favoring this drug busines

 

Reference:

Dunn T.J., 1996. The Militarization of the USA Mexico Border 1978-1992: Low   Intensity Conflict Comes Home. University ofTexas,Austin.

 

The Israel- Palestinian war started in 1948, it is also known as war of independence by Palestinians. Also it is calledArab-Israelwar. It all sparked of with the establishment of the state ofIsraelafter hundred thousands of Palestinians were displaced. Since then, the conflict has continued up to date. There have been many deaths, suicidal bombers and heavy loss of properties on both sides. These conflicts are not consistent but keep escalating. One may wonder whether there will ever be peace. What is the peace brokers doing to bring an end to this long protracted conflict? What are the prospects of peace? This paper will specifically focus on these two questions. The paper will give you a brief history of how things have been, the measures were taken to end the conflict, how currently the situation is and finally on the future prospects of peace.

After Israelachieved independence (Ross D., 2004) it was invaded by Egypt, Syria, Iraqand Lebanon. At this time Israelwas a small state with a very small population. The Arab nations were against United Nations decision to partition Palestineinto two states. The decision did not amuse the Palestineand Arab states. So, Israelwas attacked by Arab states after it declared its independence on 14^th may 1948 though it managed to defend itself. The war came to an end in 1949 after an armistice was signed. This led to the enlargement of the state ofIsrael more than what was agreed on by the United Nations partition plan.

The Israel-Palestinian conflict is a contest between these two countries over the claim of the same land area. After 1948 war,Israelextended its borders by taking a portion ofJerusalem.

In 1956, (Carter J., 2006) Egyptinvaded Israelby closing the traits of Tiran to the shipping bases of Israeland took control over the Gulf of Aqaba. This was against the Constantinople agreement of 1888; it was also a violation of the 1949 armistice which was signed by Arab nations and Israel. In 1956, 26^th of JulyEgypt owned the Suez Canal Company and denied its access toIsrael ships.Israel retaliated by invading theSinai Peninsula. It also capturedGaza strip. It was supported byBritain andFrance but U.S and UN stopped this war and an armistice was signed.Israel withdrew fromEgypt’s territory and it was allowed to access the region. After the war, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was created. It was supposed to see the demilitization of Sinai.

In 1967 may, Egypt chased the UNEF observes and recruited about hundred thousand soldiers in the Sinai Peninsula thus reverting to the 1956 status quo. In 1967 May Jordan,EgyptandSyriaentered in to a mutual defense pact that promptedIsraelto embark on a pre-emptive attack inEgypt. It released almost all of its planes to those ofEgyptand weakened them, then turned to Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces. The war took six days whereIsraelemerged the winner. In 1967, the Arab leaders met inSudan,Khartoumto discuss about Arab nations andPalestine. Their conclusion was that the state ofIsraelwas not to be recognized as a legal state, there was to be no peace in There was to be no compromise or negotiations to be held betweenIsraeland Arabs.

Egyptin 1969 started to revenge from what had happened in 1967. It wantedIsraelto surrender theSinai Peninsula. This war continued untilEgypt’s president Abdul Nasser died in 1970. In 1973, war broke out betweenIsrael,SyriaandEgypt. This war had a lot of cold war influence for it involved the superpowers-USA andUSSR.Israelhad already shown signs of winning the war whenUSSRthreatened to take military action againstIsrael. When US saw this they quickly secured a ceasefire so that nuclear war could be avoided.

Since 1974 to the present, the war has continued between Arabs states andIsrael. There are so peace agreements that have been signed. For example, in 1970sCamp Davidaccords were signed. Here Sinai Peninsula was to be returned and theGazastrip would remain in the hands ofIsrael. In 1994,IsraelandJordansigned a peace treaty to resolve all their differences. In 1981,Iraqwas attacked byIsraeland destroyed all their newlyIraqnuclear machineries. Later during the gulf war,Iraqfired many missiles butIsraelrefused to respond so as to prevent a war outbreak.

In 1957, the PLO in conjunction withSyriathrown missiles toIsraeland later were invaded byLebanon. In 1983,IsraelandLebanonsigned a ceasefire. Two years later, all theIsraelforces had moved out and left an open space whereSyriaand Hezbollah filled. In 2002 in response toAqsa Intifada,Israelforce ravaged some properties in the West bank. In 2005, Ariel Sharon the prime minister withdrew his army fromGazastrip (Rubin B., 2007)

In 2006, July some Hezbollah troops approached Israelfrom Lebanon. They attacked kidnapped and killed people. A UN cease fire was signed in 2006 that officially ended the conflict. On September 6^th,Israel attacked and bombed Syrian complex in the North that was said to hold nuclear weapons fromNorth Korea.

There have been various attempts to bring peace betweenIsraelandPalestine(Ami B.S., 2006) For example, in 1993 leaders fromPalestineliberation organization (PLO) met to resolve this conflict under what was calledOslopeace process. This time Arafat recognized that the state of.Israelexisted. It was agreed thatIsraelshould vacate the Palestinian territories in exchange of peace from Palestinians. This progressed slowly but finally it became a closed chapter when Yasser Arafat and Barak disagreed over the status ofJerusalem. If this agreement succeeded, it would have put a full stop to that long peace struggle. I thinkIsraelwas responsible for this continued conflict because if it returned the territories it had grabbed fromPalestineduring the 1948 Arab Israel war, the tug of war could have come to an end.

Another peace initiative took place in 2002; here a proposal was made by the European Union, the UN, US, andRussia. The group was referred to as the quartet.Israelgave 14 conditions that were to be met before it accepted the proposal. The proposal never touched the fate ofJerusalembut was set to be discussed later. The changesIsraelwanted effected were not welcomed byPalestine. The peace process did not even pass through the phase one of its proposal which called forIsraelto stop violence and to stop making constructions it was making. It seemsIsraelwas not interested in peace process. If it was, then it could not have given those unachievable conditions. It could have let the negotiations to proceed. This conflict is fueled by the western politics. It is like US is supportingIsraelwhileRussiasupports the Arab nations. These western nations if anything, they should be facilitators of peace but not parties to the conflict (Oren M., 2002)

Also there was another peace initiative which was proposed by the crown prince of Saudi Arabia- Abdullah. It was made in theBeirutsummit. The proposal was Okayed by all Arab states including those of the Hamas and Fatah factions. Unlike the Road Map for peace, it proposed the final solutions to the problem. It clearly laid the strategies to be followed in the peace building process.

The proposal arguedIsraelto remove its force from all the illegally occupied territories that included Golan Heights, to recognize the independent state ofPalestinewith its capital city at East Jerusalem, to vacate West Bank as well asGazastrip. They also provided a lasting solution for the Palestinians in Diaspora.Israelrejected this proposal at first but Arabs continued to offer it as the best of the solutions that so far had been raised. In my view, this proposal was excellent. There is nowhere that it compromised the state ofIsrael. This proposal requiredIsraelto vacate from the soils ofPalestine. The proposal did recognize the state ofIsraelunlike those that were signed by Egypt Syria and Jordan which never recognizedIsraelas a legal state.

In 2003, Arial Sharon announced that he would vacate theGazastrip with all the civilians and military weapon but to continue to supervise and guard the external borders except that crossing withEgyptwhich is jointly manned by the Palestinian national authority together with European Union. They wanted theGazastrip to be free but to continue building the wall. That is the Israel-West Bank barrier and to maintain theWest Bankas it is (Mark P., 1994.)

Israeleffected their disengagement plan in 2005 between August and September. This process was popular amongst Israelis and helped Olmert Ellud the prime minister to win the forth coming election whenSharongot incapacitated by strike. As preparations forIsraelto vacateGazastrip, cease fire was signed in 2005 between Fatah and Hamas but other factions rejected this plea and continued to level attacks againstIsrael.

When this failed Israelresumed to its military actions and targeted militants who operated from Gazastrip and organized attacks against it. Later full violence broke out again when Hamas officials were killed by Israelmissile on 5^th 2006. The following day rockets were fired by Popular Resistance Group though no deaths were reported.Israel retaliated by directing its air strikes to its attackers. Five Palestinians were killed and 20 wounded when shots were fired by theIsrael’s navy boats.  By this time the conflict was in its full swing and Hamas called off the 16 old day cease fire (Lughod A., and Toynbee J A., 1987)

Since then, there have been a lot of military activities going on inGazaand Palestinian where both sides were revenging on each other. In June 2006 Hamas captured a 19 years old Israel IDF soldier an action that madeIsraelto execute a military operation against the said attackers. The peace process was further compromised by the fact that they won in the 2006 Palestinian legislative council and its new leader Ismael Haniyer ascended to the post of the prime minister. He complicated the situation when he declared that he did not recognize the existence ofIsraelas a state. This to me was a very big threat to the peace process building. Haniyah reverted to the situation that was there before. This time around,Israelwas more understanding than before. By removing its forces fromGazawas something they haven’t done before which could be termed as positive.

In 2007 (Maxine R., 1973) Hamas and Fatah met to discuss how they can form a new unity government. Immediately after Haniyer resigned, Hamas and Fatah assumed leadership in March 2007. After some time, this coalition government collapsed and both started disagreeing. They even started engaging in a physical struggle. Hamas defeated Fatah and took control of theGazastrip while Fatah took control over west Bank. Gazadid not recognize the existence ofIsrael. Economic sanctions were placed onGazadue to its renewed fighting’s betweenIsraeland Hamas inGazastrip

Since then, Hamas has been trying to secure cease fires butIsraelhas turned down their pleas. U.S has been trying to speed up the peace process by clearing the obstacles that impeded the withdrawal of Israel from Gaza strip and some and some west bank regions (Morris B., 1993) This was being done by secretary of state Condoleezza Rice who appointed Wolfensohn James the former World Bank president. This was a step in the right direction to help these two warning nations to come to peace terms. Other countries should also fell free to help these countries to stop their conflict. Even when president Bush of U.S metSharonin Crawford, he openly stated that he was totally opposed to the idea ofIsraelexpanding its territory. He asked him support theUSbacked peace processes and avoid conflicts.

Judging from what we have seen we now do understand why there are a lot suicidal bombers inPalestinewho are ready to sacrifice themselves for their country. The whole war is about illegal occupation byIsraelso if onlyIsraelcould vacate all these territories, the struggle would soon come to an end and both states would be peaceful. If this is not solved, then there are no future prospects of peace betweenIsraelandPalestine.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reference:

Maxine R., 1973.Israel a Colonial Settler State?: Monad Press.

Lughod A., and Toynbee J A., 1987. The Transformation of Palestine: Essays on the         Origin and Development of the Arab- Israel Conflict:NorthWesternUniversity         Press

Morris B., 1993. Israelis Border Wars 1949-1956: Arab Infiltration Israel Retaliation and the Count Down to the Suez War:OxfordUniversity Press,New York

Mark P., 1994. A Fire in Zion: The Israeli-Palestinian Search for Peace: William Morrow   and CO., Inc.

Ami B.S., 2006.  Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israel Arab Tragedy:Oxford          University Press.

Carter J., 2006. Palestine Peace not Apartheid: Simon & Schuster.

Rubin B., 2007. The Truth about Syria: Palgrave, Macmillan.

Oren M., 2002. Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East:            OxfordUniversity Press.

Ross D., 2004. The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace:   Farrar Straus and GirouxNew York.

Strenuous Life

Strenuous Life is a speech that gives an insight of what Theodore Roosevelt was and what he represented. A man unafraid to lead and who is willing to overcome all odds and challenges in life to follow the path he has cut for himself. It tells us of a man who abhors laziness and timidity. A patriot whose true sense of belonging starts and end with the United States, whose interest he seeks to further and protect at whatever cost. It tells us of a brave man who believes the destiny of the world lies with the United States and it is up to the men in America to rise up and shape that destiny. This can only happen through a strenuous endeavor.

Theodore Roosevelt stands as one of the greatest American president, his name only placed among the founding fathers and great states men such as George Washington, Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln amongst few others. He had an unshakeable belief that the United States should never shy away from a war if that war could help shape its international standing. This speech paint’s picture of a man who does not shy away from challenges, a fighter who could take up on anything (http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trstrenlife.html).

The courage exhibited in this speech was demonstrated in his life at the throne of leadership. Although literally he was known for his role during the war with Spain, he also fought battles in the home front and in the foreign policy. He put up a spirited fight against the big businesses and was always at the forefront in environmental conservation.

There are many memorable accomplishments of Theodore Roosevelt that showed that he could stand his ground even when faced by an uphill task. During the Anthracite coal strike in 1920, he made a rare decision and chose to stick with the miners. The miners had put up a spirited strike over low wages with the companies refusing to negotiate. This arrogance infuriated Roosevelt who threatened to turn the mines over to the army to run them. The companies consequently raised the miners’ pay.

The speech says that United States must rise up and pursue its self-interests in the global scene; Roosevelt emphasized this fact in the congress. He had before vowed to pursue an isolationist policy but after the war with Spain, he insisted that that the United States must take up its role in world policing especially in the 20 ^Th century.

In his go-getter stance and in pursuit of his love for environmental conservation, Roosevelt took congress head on and established a Federal Bird Reservation in the Pelican Island. He also established a large number of parks, forests and historical monuments.

As his speech reiterates, Roosevelt was always talking of the United States role as super power. He played a great role in convincing president Wilson to intervene in the cold war. He had been requesting to be allowed to bring to gather a group of volunteer soldiers to send to Europe. He was glad when the United States finally intervened and he sent his four sons to join in the war where he lost his youngest son to Germans.

Although his period in power was not characterized by the crisis that would propel his presidency and in to history books, his achievements have been remarkable and he remains one of the most popular presidents in the United States.

 

League of Nations

 

The League of Nations was formed immediately after the Second World War after the Treaty of Versailles in 1920. This organization was charged with a simple responsibility of maintaining peace in the world. It was also seeking to address the issues that had brought the world in to war with an objective of seeing that it did not happen again.

The First World War had kicked off in 1914 after the assassination of an archduke Franz Ferdinand. This in what would trigger a series of events with countries declaring war against each other. Prior to the war, an arms race had been occurring between Britain and Germany in what they called military preparedness. Britain was seeking to remain the dominant force in the world at the possible threat of Germany. There had been a feeling of distrust between the various countries in Europe that possessed economic power ranging from Russia and France on top of Britain and Germany. All these had been readying their defense in the face of a possible attack.

Imperialism is also blamed as having led to the war. Vladimir Lenin had earlier predicted this. This is further supported by the fact that all the European powers had been involved in an expansionist policy acquiring territories in the third world.

Russia was facing intense rivalry in the Balkans in the face of an attack from Germany. Russia was for the Pan Slavic movements while Germany was opposed to this. France went ahead and supported Russia against Germany. The assassination of the arch duke was just the final straw in the camels back as immediately Austro-Hungarian government declared war against Serbia which was accused of being under the assassination Russia supported Serbia While France was supporting Russia. Germany declares war on both and war broke out fully. Britain joined in after it became evident that Germany was going against the initial treaty.

All along during the First World War the United States had vowed to maintain a policy of isolationism. However after it became apparent that Germany was rooting for war using Mexico and after a number of U.S. submarines were sunk Wilson declared war on Germany joining the allied forces.

By the close of the Second World War, the various leaders were appalled by the destruction and loss of live that had taken place. With Woodrow Wilson at the driving seat, the idea of a League of Nations was strengthened. It was to be charged with a duty of arbitrating future disputes. This idea was not however popular at home as the isolationist policy was still in force (John Milton Cooper, 76).

The League of Nation was bringing together all the major European powers except Russia and Germany. France and Britain were its key members.

The League of Nation did not achieve much. It had some inherent flaws that were being exploited by some aggrieved nations and not even the economic sanctions could work out. It only built a framework through which future organizations could be founded on. It was unable to prevent a major fall out that culminated into the Second World War.

 

The Great Depression

Great depression refers to a period of economic collapse in the world between late 1920s and early 1940s. The depression is said to have started in the United States before spreading to the rest of the industrialized nations. It is a period characterized by closure of banks, unemployment and as well as collapse of factories leading to under production of essential goods.

Prior to the great depression, the United States seemed to be treading on a prosperous path especially in the 1920s. However, underlying this prosperity was rampant inequality, as the rich enlarged the pockets, the poor especially the farmer’s earnings were fast dwindling. The World War 1 also left a huge dent among the European powers as many were still paying their huge debts.

It is the culmination of these financial strains that contributed to the crash of the United States stock market on a day that is referred to as a black Monday.

There are a number of people who hold a wrong perception that the Great Depression was as a result of the events of the Black Monday. In retrospect, both were a culmination of the underlying strains in the economy. A look at the pre-events to the depression would reveal this.

The Roaring Twenties, immediately after the First World War, would see the United States hide in to a cocoon, continuing with its isolationist policy. A new culture of Consumerism and Jazz was taking root with the traditional American values being shown the door. Individualism and feminism were also creeping in fast with majority of the population embarking in a fierce race to acquire riches. Consumerism was encouraged through modern advertising methods. Long held traditional ideals like saving were abandoned as people took to rapid buying of things such as motor vehicles and electronics. The factories were over producing consumer goods more than the peoples demands could match.

Unlike the factories that were on a boom, workers wages were not growing proportionately. Income tax was also not proportionate to wealth as those high in the income level enjoyed tax slashes as per the revenue act of 1926.

This was the fact exacerbating inequality. People began to borrow heavily to put up with the consumerism trend that had taken root. Farmers had doubled their production due to the huge demand after the war and the market as flooded leading low prices. Banks were heavily lending their money to the European countries. The U.S put high tariffs on imports and this became the tendency in the many countries as they sough to pursue self-interest. Shares acquired unnatural growth, they were rising in their prices more than their real value, and millions of shares were being traded daily. This however could not be held for long and suddenly shares prices started falling rapidly leading to a stock market crash. People were using their incomes to pay for their debts. Production fell and factories had to lay off a large proportion of their employees. People were unable to pay their bank loans and depositors needed their money back. Banks started falling. Farmers suffered a great blow as they could not produce anymore and the following drought threatening to wipe their produces out. Almost the whole nation was filled with desolate and hopeless faces awaiting government aid.

 

 

FDRS Strategies for Fighting the Great Depression

 

Majority of Americans were distraught and largely disillusioned. They were dissatisfied with President Herbert’s policy, which did not seem to bear any fruits. Hoover was still insisting that the economy would pick up. To him the Great Depression was as a result of waning confidence in the public. The government started giving loans to the collapsing industries and offering relief. This however did not bear any fruit as the economy was on its knees.

Public’s displeasure had risen to a tension high. War veterans held protests in Washington demanding relief and bonuses. The government could give none and was busy raising tariffs for imports, which resulted to the European countries raising theirs, further worsening the situation. Hoover grew more unpopular amongst the Americans (Ron Olson, 116).

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was nominated the presidential candidate of the Democratic Party and he was promising a change of things upon his election. His win was readily guaranteed as president Hoover presented no serious challenge. True to his words the New Deal policies were implemented immediately after his inauguration. A series of legislations were introduced into the congress. His temporary measures included “banking holiday” and a number of programs aimed at alleviating problems of specific groups like the farmers, unemployed youths.        The reforms that Franklin Roosevelt introduced helped alleviate suffering and got the economic running. They also strengthened the role of the government in business. The introduced reforms and programs reduced unemployment although not significantly and stabilized the stock market, as well as aid to special groups like the disabled. Public works were expanded and other capital expenses, to increase demand.

These measures temporarily decreased the suffering of the masses during the depression but unemployment levels were still high.

Roosevelt’s confidence was contagious and would boost the publics’ confidence in him and the economy. His bills were getting an easy pass in parliament. The number of agencies initiated also worked to his favor. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided job opportunities to the youth who were absorbed in to the expansion projects. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) was meant to help the farmers in reducing production and demanding higher prices. The National Industrial Recovery Act was focusing on the recovery of industries that would lead to decrease in unfair competition practices by introducing new regulatory codes.

The Works Progress Administration had an objective of employing two million people; this however was not without opposition from the Republicans who said that it was favoring democrats. But it recorded huge success as David M. notes (1999, 253) ” WPA employed more than three million people in its first year and in the light years of its life. Put 8.5 million persons to work at a total cost of some $11 billion”

Majority of the people are in agreement that Roosevelt’s policies helped alleviate suffering from the people and also inject life in to the economy. Some however are against the increased powerful role that the government was playing in the economy and in business.

 

Works Cited.

John Milton Cooper, Jr. Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900-1920. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1990; 76

David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. (ISBN: 0-19-514403-1)

Theodore Roosevelt. The Strenuous Life. April 10 1899.Retrieved on 23/01/08 from: http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trstrenlife.html

Ron Olson. Homework Helpers: From Reconstruction through the Dawn of the 21^st Century. Career Press.2007; 116

The U.S is the world largest energy consumer. It relies on non-renewable resources for the provision of energy ranging from petroleum, coal and natural gas. Modernization and industrialization has resulted to increased energy demand. Energy is required in important sectors like the transportation, industry as well as in the commercial sector. Industries like refineries and chemical production, in the production and processes of their products. Energy is consumed as vehicles, trains, ship and air transport people or goods from one place to another. Houses use energy to heat houses, water, lighting and other electronic appliances. Institutions and business also need energy to accomplish their day-to-day activities. The U.S oil consumption rates are increasing at a high rate that may catch up with the economic growth.

U.S consumes 20.7 million barrels or 869 million gallons daily, 25% total world consumption despite it forming 5% of the world’s population .The consumption level is subject to rise with increased industrialization. (mwhodges.home.att.net). The over reliance in non-renewable resources will have adverse effects to the environment, political and economic aspects.

The non-renewable resources result to high pollution rates. Over exploitation of the resources may result to exhaustion or depletion of the resources. Nuclear energy produces dangerous radioactive waste materials that can affect human beings’ health.

Over reliance on oil affects the economy when the oil prices keep fluctuating. Since non-renewable resources can get exhausted scarcity may prevail leading to increased oil prices and inflation levels will be on the rise.

 

A 5-10 Year Plan for Renewable Energy in America.

There is urgent need for America to adopt renewable resources that will have reduced impact on the environment while providing a lasting solution to distortions caused by oil dependence. The oil rich countries can interrupt the U.S economy through the price fluctuations. (Micheal 7)

The U.S should first put in place laws that will meet not only the short-term energy demands but also ensure that the long-term demands are not jeopardized. Renewable energy will ensure sustainable development. This is because it is reduces the health as well as environment risks.

Renewable energy includes energy from the wind, solar and water, which can replace oil and fossil fuels. These forms of energy will reduce the over dependence on oil especially from foreign countries that make it volatile. US should diversify the sources of energy. (Eckhart 8).

Encourage industries to adapt sustainable development strategies so that they do not cause health hazards to future generations. They should be environment friendly and high taxes can be imposed to those negating this strategy.

The government can increase its investment on its cities so that wastage of energy is reduced. The government should be committed in installing solar electric, geothermal and wind power in its public institutions. The military should also control its consumption levels as an effort of showing its commitment to renewable energy sources. (www.energybulletin.net).

The strategy will be faced with political challenges whereby by political will by leaders will influence the effective implementation of the project. The congress has to approve the plan to be successful.

Creating awareness will be a positive move in ensuring that people understand the importance of renewable sources of energy as well as the adverse implications of non-renewable sources. This move will ensure that residential energy consumption trends are changed and people adopt renewable sources of energy. For instance encouraging people to use solar electricity to heat water and warm their houses. Renewable sources of energy will reduce the greenhouse gases production and consequently global warming will be reduced. (www.epa.gov).

The government will need to commit a 300 billion dollar for 10 years to support this project. It can invest in modernizing the homes of low-income earners so that they adapt energy efficient measures. This approach will help in reducing wastage of energy from the residential sector.

The transportation sector currently accounts for 68% of US oil consumption. Replacing the energy wastage measures by adopting renewable and environment friendly resources will help save America. The government can spend 15 $ billion to help automakers phase out the fuel inefficient vehicles. Scientists have shown that man has been very influential in causing global warming. Global warming affects the climate and has adverse effects on man. 20% of green house gases are from vehicles. The transport sector can use electricity from renewable sources. (Houghton 155). Since less than 2% of electricity is from oil it can be used on transportation. Research shows that 30% can be implemented on transport without extra installation. Introduction of sport utility vehicles and light trucks will help improve on fuel efficiency.

Government must take its role in ensuring that buildings constructed are energy efficient. It must also ensure that technical training is provided to relevant bodies to save energy.

Adopting the renewable energy resources will be of economic benefits. U.S spends approximately 1.4 billion $ daily on foreign oil, money that can be saved if renewable sources of energy are sought.

Dissemination of information about the adverse effects of non renewable sources of energy for instance global warming will see people change their energy consumption patterns. Alternative methods of transportation can be opted to reduce the traffic jams that that lead to high wastage levels of energy.

Increased investment in research will help America establish potential renewable resources that can be exploited match its energy demands. Intensified research will provide accurate information needed in implementation of this project. Research will identify viable resources thus reducing unnecessary costs.

The government also needs to invest in training for manufacturing industries so that they adapt energy conservation strategies. Imposing high taxes on polluters will encourage industries to adapt environmental friendly techniques.

The government will need to allocate more money to support ethanol refineries. Ethanol from corn and biodisel from Soya beans are environmental friendly and should be encouraged to reduce the adverse effects brought about by over dependence on oil.

Renewable energy will help America maintain its national security and its influence and options in the world will not be affected. Oil rich countries tend to be prone to constant conflicts and are undemocratic.

Works cited:

Eckhart Michael. Renewable Energy Industry. Power Engineering, vol. 110, no. 1.2006. p. 8.

US Environmental Protection Agency: Climate change-Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Retrieved on 23^rd January 2008 from http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/emmisions/ind-home.html

Houghton, John Theodore. Global warming: the complete briefing 3rd ed. Cambridge,

University, 2004 P. 120-160

Micheal Parfit. Future where will the world get its next energy fix? National Geographic Magazine. August 2005. P 7

Sohbet Karbuz. US military energy consumption. Facts and figures. Retrieved on 23^rd January 2008 from

http://www.energybulletin.net/29925.html

Michael Hodges. Economic Energy Report’s. USA Energy: consumption, production, imports and reserves. Retrieved on 23^rd January 2008 from

http://mwhodges.home.att.net/energy/energy-a.htm

 

Ethical standards and principles are what form the basis of creating and maintaining public trust. They are rules that must be obeyed by counselors in the course of their work. Now in this case study, I am going to assess Jocelyn’s case with relation to the ethical standards to know whether Jocelyn exceeded her bounds of competence and if so, in what respect? What are the legal and ethical issues related to therapist competence? What major factors should be considered to determine your boundaries of competence given your field of study? How do you assess your competence in deciding what to do and what not? Provide an example of when competence may play a role in client care and what would you do in this situation? This is what basically I will focus on.

As far as I am concerned, Jocelyn is acting beyond her competence  because when the pastor of her church asked her to address the increasing need of a counselor in her region, she agreed to work as his extension to counsel her neighbors and if need be she would make referrals. This is an indicator that she was determined to give clinical mental health rather than let her neighbors wallow in pain. She intended to this knowing very well that her level of training did not allow her. In fact she had eight more courses before she could go in the field for practice.

The legal and ethical issues that are related to the therapist’s competence are: To be a professional counselor or a therapist you must have a valid license. The clergy are exempted from having it because theirs is a vocational ‘call’. There is a difference between professional counseling and a ‘calling’ and one should be able to draw a line between the two. One is also required to work under supervision of a fully qualified counselor before he/she can go to the field to work alone. (Barbara H. and Corey G. 2005) There are also some major factors that should be considered when determining ones boundaries of competence. First, you should complete your studies and attain the required grade. Secondly, you must have a working experience which is gained after supervised practical sessions and above all, you should have a valid license.

There are various ways to assess your level of competence in order to know what to offer or not. First, assess the problem to see whether it falls under your scope or outside. Second, you should not counsel people if you are not qualified to do so. Like Jocelyn, who had eight more courses before she could have her supervised practical. Third, you should also be able to distinguish between a profession and a ‘calling’ from above. If you have the profession, then you can go ahead and offer mental counseling. Like in this case, for the pastor is not a profession but a ‘call’. Lastly, consider yourself incompetent and unqualified if you don’t have a valid license like Jocelyn. (Corey G. et al, 2006)

Competence may play a role in client care for example when dealing with somebody who is under stress. As a competent person you should be able to approach them well so that they can open up and tell you what really is disturbing them. After that you synthesize all that information to know the root cause. From there, it is easier to know where to start and how to address the problem without referring your patient to other therapists.

To conclude, it should be known that counseling is not something that you can wake up one day and start doing it but it is something that requires seriousness, determination , in depth knowledge and a great deal of practice. It is only after this that you can know the limits of your career.

 

Reference:

Barbara H. and Corey G. 2005. Ethical Standards Casebook. American Counseling           Association. 6^th Edition.

Corey G. et al, 2006. Issues and Ethics in the Helping professions. Brooks/Cole      Publication Company,United States.

Case1: Chuck Norris co.

A)Selling price of bond

The determination of the selling price of bonds is important because it helps the bondholders know the yield they will receive if they were to purchase the bond.

Bonds can be issued at par, premium and at a discount. A Bond is said to be issued at par if the yield is equal to the coupon rate. If the current market yield is more than the coupon rate stated on the bond, then, that bond has been issued at premium. If the coupon rate is more than the yield rate currently earned by similar bonds in the market (Sheth, 2007, Slide 23, chapter 12)

Bondholders receive periodic payments of interest amount, which is constant over the life of bond. Therefore the price of the bond is arrived at by discounting all these payments i.e. the selling price is the present value of all periodic payments plus the present value of the maturity amount, which is the principle amount of the bond. (Englard, 1992, Page 6, chapter 1)

The formula for calculating the price of the bond is as shown below.

Bond price= (PV) =p (1+r^)-2 + p (1+r)^-2 +…. +p (1+r^)-n + m (1+R)^-n

Where =p= period receipt/payment

r=required yield –effective

M=maturity value (principle amount)

The periodic receipts of interest amount are constant over the bond period and therefore are annuity in nature.

Therefore to calculate the present value of the interest payments the annuity formula is used.

Present value interest payments=                    Constant interest receipts* (1-(1 +r) ^–n

                                                                                                                                                                r

The maturity amount (principle) is received as a single amount at the end of the bond period, thus is a single amount discounted using the single amount formula.

Present value maturity value =m (1+r)^-1

Therefore, the total selling price is the sum of present value of interest and principal amount.

2) Presentation of bonds in balance sheet

When a bond is issued, the following factors are considered in accounting for the bonds.

– Recording the issue or purchase of the bond

– Recording the interest received during the life of the bond.

-Accounting for the retirement (through calling, refinancing or conversion) of the bond. (Sheth, 2007, Slide 16, Chapter 12)

Issuer’s books

As seen earlier bonds can be issued at par, discount or premium.

Bond issued at par– the bonds were issued between interest dates.

Long-term liabilities.

Bond payable                                      xxx

Current liability

Interest payable (1 month)                  xxx

Current assets

Cash (amount of bond)                       xxx

Bond issued at a discount

Long-term liabilities

Bonds payable                                                xxx

Discount on bonds payable                 xxx

Current assets

Cash (less discount on bond)              xxx

Bonds issued at a premium

Long-term liabilities

Bonds payable (plus premium)           xxx

Current assets

Cash (including premium)                   xxx

Investors books

The buyers’ balance sheet will be as follows

At par

Assets

Investments in bond                           xxx

Current-asset

Interest accrued (1 month)                  xxx

Cash (amount of bond)                       xxx

At discount

Assets

Investment in bond (less discount)     xxx

Current assets

Cash                                                    xxx

At premium

Assets

Bond investment (plus premium)        xxx

Current assets

Cash                (plus premium)            xxx

B) Income statement items

The items that will be included in the income statement of Norris co. for the year 2008 include

-Interest expenses

-Adjustment to interest expenses (amortization)

Interest expenses

The amount of interest is determined using the par value and the coupon rate and not effective rate. (Englard, 1992, page 2-3)

Illustration

At par

Using the example of Norris co. bond assuming that it was issued at par, then the interest will be 1000*xx%= interest

At discount

Payment- interest = xx%*1000

Interest amount = yy% *(1000-discount)

The difference between the interest payment and interest amount is amortization of discount.

At premium

Interest payment =xx% * 1000

Interest amount= yy% * (1000 +premium)

The difference between the interest payment and the interest amount is the amortization of premium

Amortization of discount/premium

If the selling price/issuing price of the bond is higher than the par value, then is issued at a premium while if issued at a lower price than the par value, then, it is at a discount.

The discount or premium on issue is amortized over the life of the bond using either the straight line or effective interest rate method.

Straight lime method

Amortization=                         Amount of discount/premium

Life of bond

Effective interest rate

Interest payment = xx% *1000

Less: interest amount = (yy % * (1000+ premium)

Premium amortization                         xxx

Interest amount = yy% * (1000-discount)

Less: interest payment = (xxx% /* 1000)

Discount amortization             xxx

C) Discount on issue

When the bond is issued at a discount, the issue amount is lower than the par value. The redemption/maturity amount is equal the par value.

Therefore the amortization is used to increase the bond book value over the life of the bond. All the discount will be amortized over the life of the bond and the amount on maturity will be= (discount + discount issue price)

Illustration –amortization table

                        A                      B                    C                       D

(yy % * disctd.amt)    (xx%*1000)    (A-B)=C          D=(C+ Book value)

Period interest amount interest payment discount amortization   bond book value

0                      –                       –                       1000-discount             discounted amount

1                      xxx                  xxx                  A-B                             D+ (A-B)

The amortization amount is used to increase the interest expenses in order to reflect the extra interest paid to the bond holder (Englard, 1992, page 8 paragraph 1).

D)Reporting retirement of bonds

Bonds can be paid up before its maturity date usually at a specified price. If the price is more than the book value of the bond then, the difference is a loss on retirement while if paid amount is less, then, it is a gain.

Gains and losses on retirement are treated as extra ordinary items in the income statement.

The book value of the bond is equal to the value minus any discount if the bond issued at a discount or plus the premium if the bond was issued at a premium.

The amortization of the premium or discount should be up to the retirement date.

The retirement of the bond leads to the closure of the bonds payable account, any premium discount and the cash is reduced by the amount of the bond balance. And the loss or gain on retirement is recognized in the income statement (Englard, 1992, page 7, paragraph 1)

It is important to note also any bond costs should be amortized over the life of the bond. Upon retirement, any unamortized bond costs are written off in the income statement.

Case 2, Iroquois corp.

A (i) recording of equipment at $ 100,000

Assets and liabilities are recorded in the books at the cost incurred to acquire the asset or liability (original cost). This is a requirement under the US GAAPs

The historical cost in this case includes the purchase price and all other incidental costs that enable the asset to be used by the company. Some of the incidental costs are legal fees, transportation, installation and pre-installation set up costs.

The advantage of recording assets using historical cost is that it resolves the inconsistencies as to what amount to record if fair market value was to be used (Mukherjee, Hanif, Financial Accounting 1.11)

Any discount on acquisition should be subtracted from the purchase price. In case the asset is acquired for a consideration other than cash e.g. shares, bonds, then, the fair market value of the shares, bonds should be the cost of the asset.

Subsequent costs to improve the asset should be capitalized as long as the additional costs leads to the increment of useful life of the asset and leads to increased productivity.

In the question, recording the asset at $ 100,000 is wrong and is not in line with GAAP provision of recording the asset at the price actually paid for the asset ($200,000)

The $ 100,000 is only part of the total cost of the equipment. The total cost must include the valuation of the Treasury stock. Treasury stock should be valued at the fair market value.

2) Recording equipment at & 175,000

The cost of the equipment if it was to be bought using cash is $ 175,000. However, the cost increased to $ 200,000 because of the use of & 100,000 treasure stock part of the payment.

Therefore the amount to be recorded is $ 200,000 i.e. the cash price plus fair value amount of Treasury stock of $100,000. Recording the cost of the equipment at $ 175,000 will be inconsistent with the historical cost principle and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAPs) (Charumathi, Virayakam, 2004, page 17)

 

3) Recording equipment at $ 200,000

Recording the acquisition of the equipment at $ 200,000 being $ 100,000 cash and $ 100,000 treasury stock is the correct historical cost of the asset.

The total in this case should be the cash payment and fair value of Treasury stock of $100,000 and $100,000 respectively.

The cash price of $ 175,000 is irrelevant now because the asset was not wholly acquired using cash and therefore recording the cash price is incorrect.

Any change in the fair value of the treasury stock should however be accounted for separately.

B.) Treatment of balance

i) Treatment of balance as liability

A liability basically is that obligation which legally binds a company or individuals to pay a stated amount of debt.

Liabilities can be short term e.g. accounts payable, accrued expenses and long term liabilities e.g. loans and bonds. Current liabilities are due within one year where as long term liabilities are due after more than one year.

Based on the above description, therefore, the balance which is to be repaid using Treasury stock over a period can be treated as a liability. Precisely the part that is due within a year is current and that due after one year is long term.

The obligation to pay the balance using treasury stock is also in the purchase agreement. This means that the company is legally bound to pay the debt using Treasury stock and as seen above a liability is an obligation that legally binds one to pay the debt hence the balance can be treated as a liability.

The other aspect of a liability is that it is an obligation incurred in the past transactions and the payment is at a future date. The balance is as a result of the past transaction of acquiring the equipment in which the balance is to be paid over a period of four years. In this respect therefore the balance qualifies to be treated as a liability.

ii) Treatment of balance as treasury stock subscribed

Treasury stock is shares that the company issued and reacquired so that they can be retired or re-issued again. The Treasury stock is treated as reduction in shareholders equity thus the reason why Treasury stock is a negative number in the balance sheet. (Sheth, Slide 23,   2007)

The issue of the Treasury stock as part of the payment for the acquisition of the equipment is equal to the selling of the shares and therefore the share capital is either increased or decreased with the amount depending on the issue price.

Since it was agreed that the balance was to be cleared using the Treasury stock then it is prudent that the share capital is either increased or decreased with the amount of the balance.

Another reason for treating the balance as Treasury stock subscribed is that the shares were earlier on re-acquired with the intention that the share price will increase and thereby reducing the number of shares to be issued to clear the balance.

Case 3 (FAS B. 115)

A)    This statement deals with equity investments with fair values that can be readily determined as well as all investments in debt securities.

These investments are classifieds in to three i.e. held-to-maturity, trading securities and available-for-sale securities. (FASB 115, paragraph 2, 3 and 4)

Available-for-sale securities are those that do not fit the description of held-to-maturity and trading securities. They are reported at fair value with unrealized losses or gains excluded in the income statement but reported as a separate component of equity.

Held-to- maturity are those that the company wishes and intends to hold until they mature. They are reported at amortized cost (FASB 115, Paragraph 2)

Trading securities are those bought solely for disposal in the short term. These securities are recorded at fair value with the gains or lose being taken to the income statement.

i) Availability for-sale securities

The advantages of a company investing in available-for-sale securities are as elaborated below

The availability-for-sale securities can be sold any time i.e. they are very liquid and therefore it is beneficial to the company in case it encounters cash flow problems as compared to borrowing.

Securities in the available-for-sale category usually have a tight spread as compared to the index and this therefore enables the holder to buy other cheaper securities from the money realized (Hullis, May 8, 2006, Para 2)

Held-to-maturity

A company would want to invent in held-to- maturity securities simply because capital appreciation purposes. Most securities held over the long term usually appreciate in value and therefore the company benefits in the long run.

The company may also want to earn constant income over the investment period. Held-to-maturity securities can be bonds, which promise constant returns until maturity.

Trading securities

These securities are purely held by the company for speculative purposes i.e. they are bought when the prices are low and sold off when they appreciate. The company benefits from the appreciated value.

2) Separate accounts

Available-for-sale, held-to-maturity and trading securities are recorded in separate accounts primarily because of the different accounting treatment accorded to each.

FASB 115 calls for the different treatment of these investments.

Held-to-maturity securities are reported at amortized cost according o FABS 115. Held-to-maturity securities include debt. The periodic interest payments are recorded in the income statement as income.

The security amount is amortized over life of the asset with the balance at the end of the year being recorded in the balance sheet.

Trading securities are reported at fair value with any gain or loss unrealized being taken to the income statement. Fair value is the market value.

Available-for-sale securities are reported in the balance sheet at fair value with unrealized gains or losses being recorded as a separate component of equity.

From the above analysis therefore it would present challenges if al the three classes were to be recorded in the same account because of the different accounting treatment for each. (FASB 115)

B)    (i) Classification of assets.

The liquidity of the investment is one of the factors used in security classification. Trading securities and available-for-sale securities should be liquid so that they can be disposed-off easily when the cash is needed.

The nature of security return is also considered in designing securities. Most held-to-maturity securities have constant returns. Bonds and other forms of debt instruments fall in this category.

Time period of the investment is also a factor that is considered. Trading securities and available-for-sale can be sold at any time while held-to-maturity can be redeemed at the end of the period or after some time if the contract provides for an early retirement.

ii) How factors affect unrealized losses

Unrealized losses is to be reported in the income statement for trading securities because they can be disposed off at any time while available-for-sale it is recorded as a separate component of equity because these investments can be sold if need be but not as easily as trading securities.

iii) Availability-for-sale securities

Unrealized losses are to be treated as a component of equity but as a separate item

Held-to-maturity

Amortized over the useful life of the asset

Trading securities

Recorded in the income statement

 

 

Reference:

FASB (1993) Summary of Statement No. 115.Accounting for Certain Investments in

   Debt and Equity. Retrieved on 25/1/2008 from

http://www.fasb.org/st/summary/stsum115.shtml

Hollis, E. (2006) Making Securities “Available for Sale” Retrieved on 25/1.2008 from

http://www.cunacfocouncil.org/news/819.html

Englard, B. (1992) Intermediate accounting II: Long-term Liabilities.New York. McGrawHill-

Professional

Mukherjee, A., &Hanif, M.  Financial Accounting: Accounting Concepts and Conventions.Tata

Mc Graw Hill

Charumanthi, B., & Virayakam, N. (2004). Financial Accounting. Accounting principles,

Accounting Concepts.New Delhi. S. Chand

Sheth, S. (2007). Intermediate Accounting 16E: Debt Financing. Retrieved on 25/1/2008 from

http://instructor.mstc.edu/instructor/jkruziki/ACCTIII/ch12-A.ppt

Women remain a special group in the society. Despite their high populations they are marginalized and have few legislative positions in society. Empowering women will reduce discrimination rates in the world. Issues that affect women participating in or those affected by the criminal justice vary with race or state. Women of color face greater discrimination from the system, which seems to be using its machinery to enforce inequalities. (www.amnestyusa.org).

The number of women victimized, offenders and criminal justice practitioners is increasing by the day. As the society develops more challenges are emerging. Women, as a marginalized part of society are prone to sex crimes. Women and girl trafficking has risen as illegal organization operates to use them for forced prostitution. Corrupt officials at varying levels allow such activities. Women in developing countries are at higher risks due to economic constraints. Victims of prostitution in foreign countries are deported to their mother countries where they are treated with discrimination making them more susceptible to such traffickers again.           In the family setup women are prone to domestic violence that could range from rape, sexual assault or trafficking.

Economic distress is a leading factor for women criminality. Drugs and alcohol abuse also lead them to commit crimes. Poverty leads to human trafficking where women are likely to be abused physically and sexually. 70% of violence against women is either domestic or committed by an acquaintance compared with 41% of crimes against men. (www.cwu.org). Without effective programs in the society where offenders are absorbed crime rates will remain on the rise. Community based care programs will be appropriate to this respect. Women practitioners in the criminal justice system face gender bias. They tend to face challenges that hinder their development in their career. Gender based discrimination affect their recruitment as well as promotion. Fewer women are in the system hence inefficiencies in addressing women’s issues. In 2004 for instance only 8.3% of women were in the Judiciary, high court judge and other positions. (www.cwu.org). Affirmative action can work to ensure a positive more in reducing the disparities.

Cultural values for instance the view that family is private and should be protected or honored sees some women suffer in the hands of cruel husbands. Some victims do not trust the criminal justice system to effectively address their problem and consequently they do not consult them. Victimized women suffer in foreign countries where communication barriers may result to communication barriers. Again they may not be conversant with the legal systems of the foreign nations.

The criminal justice system is ineffective when dealing with women caught in forced prostitution. They face harsh treatment than their abusers. Harsh punishment should be enforced so that justice prevails. The system is biased against women. Few women report sexual assaults and even for those who report the prosecution and conviction rates are low. The offenders do not seem to reform and re-victimization occurs frequently. The procedures taken in courts tend to demean women and thus the increased dropped cases. Some women fail to report assaults for fear of publicity. They may fail to report to protect their public image in fear that the public will know they were assaulted.

Fear of the offender is also a cause of under prosecution of sexual assault cases. The offender may threaten the victim that he would cause harm in case he is reported.

(Jan J, 2001) Some women fear that they might be blamed or accused that they were responsible for their sexual assaults. Others fail to report such cases for fear that those they care about for instance family members will find out about their sexual assaults. (www.justicewomen.com). The trial process where the offender is in the same room with the victim causes some to drop the charges as it is traumatizing.

Criminal justice system must be comprehensive to be effective. Proper follow up, probation monitoring and victim support must be incorporated in the system. Some officers are biased against women resulting to inefficiencies. (Wendy M, 1997) Others are reported to respond untimely to calls of distress from victimized women. Again more protection seems to be given to the criminals rather than the victims. These move makes the criminals keep pursuing their heinous acts. On the other hand the victims (women) live in despair as the system fails to protect them. Their bold move of rising beyond shame associated with the knowledge that people are aware of what happened to them is made in vain.

There are approximately 138,000 women in prisons in the USA, thrice the number of women incarcerated in 1985. (www.amnestyusa.org).  Women form a small proportion of the population compared to men. They face challenges in the prisons, which are mostly programmed and managed to serve males. Programs favoring men tend to be given priority. Women play a vital role in the family setup as most women take care of their children. Most of the women in prisons are detached from their families as they are held in prisons in different cities. The system in place is biased and it fails to provide gender specific services. They are at times sexually assaulted by staff members in the system that is meant to protect and reform them. Appropriate skills on parenting, drug abuse and sexual exploitation that mostly affect women are not addressed. Pregnant women in prison need special attention to protect their unborn children. (www.amnestyusa.org).

 

References:

Woman’s Justice Center. 2000. Mapping the Obstacles to Criminal Justice for Women. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.justicewomen.com/handbook/part1_intro.html

Amnesty International. Violations of the Human Rights of Women in Custody. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=D0F5C2222D1AABEA8025690000692FC4

Pauline Granstan. Facts  & Figures on gender discrimination. Retrieved on 25^th January 2008 from http://www.cwu.org/uploads/documents/RD05-05-121%20UPDATED%20FACTS%20%20FIGURES%20ON%20GENDER%20DISCRIMINATION.DOC

Jordan Jan. 2001. Worlds Apart? Women, Rape and the Police Reporting Process. British Journal of Criminology vol. 41, no 4.p 679-706.

Murphy Wendy.1997. Gender Bias in the Criminal Justice System. Harvard Women’s Law Journal, vol. 20: p 14-26.

When we take a trip down the memory lane up to 1878, we get to know Gustav Stresemann who was born on 10^th may 1878 and later died on 3^rd October 1929. His father was a prosperous owner of a restaurant and tavern. When he was young, he used to help in the family business and because he was very lonely, he pursed his studies assiduously. He came from a middle class family and therefore he was able to acquire his higher education at the University Berlin andLeipzig where he studied philosophy and literature. He also received a degree in political economy. It is during this period when he was a spokesman for the university students association that he discovered he had leadership qualities as well as the potential for literary attainment.

He used his literary skills to write some critical essays on the utopian writings of Thomas Moore and the lyrics of Strauss F. He also criticized the deeds ofBismarckand later on Napoleon’s. He wrote his dissertation on economic investigation on theBerlin’s beer trade. Basically it highlighted on the pressures of capitalism of a big market on the middle class ofBerlinwho were economically independent.

Stresemann started making his economic contribution in a great way in 1901. During the period when he was twenty two years, he served as a clerk to the German’s Chocolate Association of the manufactures in Dresden. The following year he assumed control over the manufacture’s business management alliance at local level branch. With his competence in organizing, he increased the members in the manufactures business management’s alliance from hundred and eighty in 1902 to a thousand in 1904 and later in 1912, he increased the number of the members to about five thousands.[1]

As time went by, he became strongly convinced that there was a relationship between economic politics and economy management, thus he started seeking for an elective office. Due to his efforts he secured himself a seat in theDresden’s town council where he stayed in this position for about six years. In 1917 he became the leader of National Liberal Party.

It was while he was in Dresdenthat he married his wife Kathe Keefeld. His whole life revolved around his wife whom he loved so much and they had two sons. Gustav was an ardent supporter of Germanic policies. He emphasized and believed in force, authority and discipline in all aspects of life. He wanted Germanyto build a very strong navy which would then help Germanyto increase and protect its overseas trade and commerce. He was of the idea that submarines should be allowed to conduct unrestricted warfare. He greatly contributed to the defeat of Bethmann’s government and strongly opposed the Versaillestreaty of 1919 in totality.[2]

It was inBerlinthat he developed his liberal ideas. In 1900 he was awarded his doctorate after presenting his dissertation on “The growth of theBerlinbottled beer industry.” He based it on the knowledge he had acquired from running his father’s businesses. His topic also touched on the decline of small sector business as a result of stiff competition from the big businesses. The ideas which inspired him to write his dissertation were later used against him by his right wing opposition figures. In his family he was the only one among five children who was able to attend high school and later his higher education at theuniversityofLeipzigandBerlin. He was a relentless Prussian liberal protestant. Gustav was a typical person who chauvinistically represented the imperialGermany. As mentioned earlier, he believed in military supremacy and economic advancement in the German empire. His political contributions were manifested by actively participating in heroic liberation of 1848 and also in his romantic speech in style.

Initially Stresemann sympathized with the ideas of Neumann Friend rich who was a social reformer protestant, Gustav started developing an interest in the rightist’s liberal party and later joined it in 1903. For the simple reason that the party was well represented inSaxony, National Liberal Party became Stresemann’s political home. He was involved in many conflicts over his support on the right wing of his party which mostly comprised of representatives of heavy industries. He was recognized in 1906 and became widely known when he first appeared at a party congress.

From 1906-1912 when he was a councilor in Dresdencity, he become also became a renowned writer in economics after he edited the ‘Dresdenmagazine Sachsische industrie.’ He also became widely known as an expert in municipal affairs. As time went by, he realized how media can influence the public opinion. He used it to influence people to support his ideas. In 1907, he became the Member of Parliament (Reichstag) of Annenberg district thereby staging himself squarely in politics. At the age of 28 years he became the youngest deputy in the parliament. He was helped by his party chairman, Ernst Bassermann to advance his politics and sooner than later he became Bassermann’s “crown prince.” Stresemann’s interests were in economic policies both as journalist and the deputy of the house. He represented the ideas of the commercial middle class. [3]

When the time he came to go toBerlin, he was among the best known economic leaders inGermany. While inBerlin, he helped to establish the American Economic Association (AEA) which originated from his idea. He came to occupy many official positions including the leading position in AEA. There he became known for his organizational skills and his interpersonal skills. By mid 1923, theGermany’s economy was in tatters andWeimar’s nation was on its way to collapse yet it regained its prosperity and its stability. People should ask themselves how this happened. All this was the fruits of Stresemann’s economic management skills and his undying efforts towards reforming his beloved nation. He was committed to nationalist as we have seen but he was of the view thatGermany’s problems could only be solved by moderation and working closely with other nations. This is why he initiated the signing of Locato treaty as well as many others. All this was achieved when he became the minister of foreign affairs of his nation.

One of his first strategies in revising the economy of the republican ofWeimarwas by introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark; he cut the government spending by cutting the number of employees who reined on the government tax. About 7,000,000 lost their jobs. These measures helped to reverse the hyperinflation and to bring back the confidence.

Stresemann stayed as a chancellor for only 4 months though he was given a job for the foreign minister; it is during this period when he was a foreign minister that he is remembered for. For example in 1942 he signed on treaty with the allies under the Dawes plan wherebyUSAproposed to giveGermany800 million gold marks so that it could revive its already dying economic base. ThenGermanywas given more time to pay its reparations and the reparations were reduced. Also under another treaty in 1929, the young plan pact was signed to extend the period for paying reparations though payment of reparations stopped in 1930 after he died and Hitler took over.

The economic recovery witnessed, in Weimar, after 1924 was reflected in cultural revivals that were seen in various fields ranging from architecture to opera. During Kaiser’s period, there was censorship but after the transition in government, freedom replaced this. Lottransformations were seen in the past, no body was allowed to criticize the government and any song or book that mentioned anything to do with sex was banned. During this period Berlinthrived with art collections for many German playwrights like Bertolt Brecht became famous and painters like George Grosz and Hannah Hoach came to be known.[4]

Stresemann was a member of the pan-German Deutcher Kolonialverein and it is during this time that he became a strong supporter of strong naval construction program. He advocated for the German’s imperialistic policies which were pursued under the leadership of Alfred von Tirpitz and Bernhard and Furst von Bulow.

As I said earlier in this paper, Stresemann was totally opposed to the terms of the Versaillestreaty and for that reason, he joined the majority German’s who held the same view. He strongly believed that Germany’s role in the First World War was purely defensive. He maintained that Germanywas only defending itself from external aggressions. He fought in the World War I with a lot of vigor but was later exempted from the military service on military grounds. However, in 1914, his political mileage returned when he went back to Reichstag for a special election. When Streseman was in the war, he advocated for pan- Germanism and a champion of Germany’s claims on foreign territories especially on the Polish and on Prussian territories in the East. Also, he helped Germanyto further its claims on French (Alsaceand Lorraine) as well as in Belgiumterritories in the West. He took over the leadership of his national liberal party from Basserman who was away from military service because of health problems. During this time, Gustav increasingly moved to the right and from 1916 he became the parliamentary mouthpiece of German army supreme command under field marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Ludendorff after working loosely with them. Here he was opposed to the ideas of Theo bald von Bachmann Hollweg the then chancellor who somehow did not commit himself fully to the territory expansion missions.[5]

Stresemann differed also with Bethmann in his support of u-boat warfare. Because of these differences and others, he arranged how Bathmann would be overthrown on July 1917 but was unable to reinstate the powerful chancellor Bulow whom he admired very much. It was after Bethmann’s death in July 1917 that he became a key figure in the Reich tag’s party faction and later he became the full chairman of the party. His party was much threatened to be divided by many differences that different party factions held but he managed to harmonize them to keep the party united. The main difference was over the three class suffrage system inPrussiawhich used citizen’s wealth to measure his political vote. Stresemann hoped to make his party a monarch and therefore, he wanted to bring to an end the idea of voting but on the other hand he allowed to be fooled on how the military situation was in Reich and its allies until the supreme command accepted that they were defeated in September 1918.

On November 9^th 1918 the defeat of his military in the war the collapse of his monarchy and the flight of emperor William ii to Holland were like death blows to Gustav but he quickly started to see the realities of the Germany republican more positively later Stresemann founded his own party-the German’s people’s party after he was not offered a chance in the newly formed left liberal German democratic party. This newly formed party was headed by a renowned sociologist of the time Max Weber with collaboration of fried rich Naumann.

Stresemann sought to rally behind all the educated and other propertied elements. He was fundamentally opposed to the Weimarrepublic’s views Gustav developed a “wait and see” attitude during the attempted putsch of March 1920 by the rightist Kapp. But when this failed to materialize, he started singing a different tune. He started to prepare himself how he could join and politically cooperate with the republicans. He tried as much as he could to convince the German democratic parties that his party was qualified to work hand in hand with the government in a coalition. He ardently demanded to be offered a position in the government up to this time, he was considered to be in national opposition to the coalition.[6]

As a member of the national constituent assembly, Gustav was opposed to the German’s constitution of 1919-1920 and was determined to dedicate his life to press for the revision of the treaty ofVersaillesof 1919 which was considered harsh by the German’s.

The treaty placed the main blame for the First World War outbreak on deputy of Reichstag and the chairman to the (GPP) or the German People’s Party.

In 1923, Gustav became the chancellor of Reich after he was chosen as the leader of the great the great coalition “that was formed by the social democrats, the center the German democrats and his party supporters. It was during the period he was the chancellor that he became a European stature statesman. This was because of how he was able to use decisive influence over the fate of theWeimarrepublic. Stresemann’s first goal was to stop supporting the idea of furthering passive resistance in theRuhr. The passive resistance was staged to weaken the French and Belgian troops who had been placed to makeGermanypay the war reparations. This was against his wish and he only did it because it was increasing inflation in the country and the economy was on its way to collapsing.

At home he was facing some opposition but he was determined to steer his way irrespective of their presence. He used a punitive approach towards the communist influenced state governments in Saxony and also in Thuringiabut he was a bit sympathetic to the radical right’s revolutionary moves. For example, that which was spearheaded by Hitler in Munichon 9^th November 1923. At this period, Stresemann’s government was trying very hard to stabilize the currency which was already unstable but finally, his government managed to restore the domestic order which was somehow disturbed by the threats of the territories in west of the Rhine that wanted to disassociate themselves from the Reich. He streamlined all the differences that had risen at this period. This is what became to be the foundation of the economy recovery. Stresemann was able to stabilize the already threatened economy by his economic knowledge that he acquired from his university education atLeipzig andBerlin.

Stresemann Gustav who became a chancellor in 1923 and a foreign minister. From 1924-1929 of theWeimarrepublic, much of the credit for restoring theGermany’s international after the World War One. Gustav became a foreign minister after he was removed from the office through a vote of no confidence. After he was voted out, he sought a position from the newly formed government. Unchallenged by the coalition government he was able to stay in power until the day he died in 1929. This coalition had three different chancellors one from the right, left and the centre.

His foreign mission was to renew and reconcile with the Western nations likeFrance. His country also renewed its ties withRussiaunder the 1922Rapallotreaty. He thought that ifWeimarrepublic would pay the reparations and somehow convince the western nations to reduce the reparations just as he did in a bid to remove the allied troops from the west ofRhine, then he would find the first in a good position where he can negotiate well with the First World War victorious powers. His top most ambition was to returnGermanyto its former position that it enjoyed before the war broke out.

What this meant is that most of the terms of the treaty were to be revised. For example the clause that concerned theGermany’s eastern border. He wanted this clause to be revised so thatPolandcould be asked to return the Danzig city, the Polish Corridor which was initially thelandofGermany, Upper Silesia andGermanyto be allowed to unite with its citizens inAustria. Stresemann was a sharp and keen man who could well see the tension that was there at that period between the east and the west. The tension was between communism wave that was being spread to the west. They wantedGermanyto be a stumbling block against communism that was threatening to take root in the Western nations. Gustav exploited this tension to further the interests of his country. The allied powers were willing to listen to him so he tried everything in his capacity to save his country though his relation with the East and the West drew a lot of criticism by many critics. He was driven by a very strong passion that sometimes made him to go beyond the mark. He could not see the opposition that came from home as well as from abroad.

Though there was a lot of opposition to his ideas, he still made some noticeable moves. For example he managed to convinceUSAin 1924 to sign the Dawes plan which was basically concerned with the treaty ofVersailles. It addressed the reduction of reparations and ways to stabilizeGermany’s financial base. During the following year another treaty was signed. This pact was called theLocarnotreaty. It was all about the new Franco- German border where the parties involved agreed to the terms. It also talked about the guidelines for arbitrating disputes and to protectGermanyfrom new sanctions by the victors. It was signed at a conference that was held inLocarnoSwitzerlandbyGreat Britain, France Germany,Italy,Belgium,CzechoslovakiaandPoland. Germanywas represented by Stresemann who also signed a pact betweenFrance,Poland, andCzechoslovakiaon mutual defense against any future possible aggression onGermany. HereGermanywas even promised that it would be allowed to join theLeague of Nations. TheLocarnotreaty was a signal of a new era of goodwill and peace in the whole world though this pact was rejected later by Adolf Hitler who in 1936 put his military on the demilitarizedRhineland.

According to the pact, the first Rhinelandwas to be evacuated by the allied powers. In 1926, Germanywas allowed to join the League of Nations. Still in same year, a mutual neutrality treaty was signed between Germanyand the western nations. Later in 1926, the Kellogg-Briand pact signed by Germany. This pact is also known as the signed on 27^th august 1928. The treaty required all nations to stop using war as an instrument of national policy.[7]

Though the treaty failed to achieve its goals, it was later useful in international law development. This pact was named after frank B. Kellogg who was the secretary of state inAmericaand the Arostide Briad, French’s foreign minister who helped in drafting the pact. In this conference,Germanywas represented by Stresemann Gustav. The parties involved thought that if they led by example, other nations would adhere the treaty as soon as it came in to power, therefore bringing all the world’s civilized nations towards denouncing war.

Stresemann never even witnessed the evacuation of the allied troops especially those of the French from the Rhineland neither the completion of the reduction ofGermanyreparation strategy through theUSproposal that was dubbed the young plan in 1929.

Despite his achievements abroad, Gustav had to fight the opposition that was coming from his home country especially his own party. He tried to use the press to influence the public opinion of his people but he raised people’s hope by making pre-mature promises that were not practical or that could not materialize. During the last two years of his life he was fighting his illness and failure to make his foreign policies bear fruits. He was especially disappointed by how he failed to fully influence his party which had split and majority of its supporters joined the rightists. He felt so bad such that, at one time, he had even contemplated of forming a new liberal centre party but the stiff struggle that he encountered at home and his illness made him to succumb to death.

Stresemann is mostly remembered for promoting democracy Weimer’s Republic and in bringing economic integration but his most notable achievement was the role he played in unitingGermanyandFrance. This made him and Aristide Briand to receive a Nobel Prize in 1926. Stresemann was initially associated with the left wing of the liberal nationals then in First World War he joined the right wing backing monarchy and imperialistic goals. Also, he supported uncontrolled submarine warfare. This association with the right wing made him to be thrown out of the Germany Democratic Party after world war one was over.

The role is played in fighting forWeimar’s stability and its survivor. He applied extra ordinary effects to overcome the resistance that was coming from abroad as well as from his home. This was echoed during his state burial which highlighted the fact that it lost one of its few great statesmen. His period witnessed the uncertainty of supporting the monarchy and changing to republican. Despite these uncertainties, he tried zealously to hold on his party leadership until his death.

Lately, Stresemann is depicted by some as a hero especially after the Second World War period, 1945. He was viewed as the united champion hero. However, this view was downplayed by the UShistorian who had an access to his literary work. This view which contradicted the original was being propagated by US historians because they knew that others had no access to his writings which by then had been banned from being circulated. For this reason, people would believe whatever they were told. He was portrayed as a flexible opportunistic politician who sought the sympathy of the people. He is also depicted as a cunning person who flexibly changed his views to suit the time. It is said that he never became a democrat out of his own will but to suit to the eyes of his supporters. The communists portray him as an advocate of monopolized capitalism and as the one who prepared the stage for Hitler. He is also characterized as pragmatic conservatist in one of the contemporary biographies who remained open to the choice of politics especially when working for the Germany’s restoration in terms of wealth, economic order and power.[8]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Crozier, Andrew J. The Colonial Question in Stresemann’s Locarno Policy. The     International history Review, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Feb. 1982.

 

Enssle Manfred J. Stresemann’s Diplomacy Fifty Years after Locarno. The Historical        Journal, Vol. 20, No. 4, Dec. 1977.

 

Fink, Carole, German Revisions politik, Historical Papers [Canada] 1986, 134-145.

 

Gatzke, Hans W. Gustav Stresemann: A Bibliographical Article. The Journal of Modern    History, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 1964.

 

Grathwol, Robert. Gustav Stresemann: Reflections on his Foreign Policy. The Journal of   Modern History; Vol. 45, No. 1, March 1973.

 

Jones, Catherine. The 1929 League of Nations Initiative: Aristide Briand’s Plan for           European Federation. The Journal of theGeorgia Association of Historians; Vol. 19,    1998.

 

New York Times. Stresemann a Strong Man and Big Hope of Germany:  August 19,         1923.

 

Wright Jonathan. Gustav Stresemann: Weimar’s Greatest Statesman. History Today          Great Britain: Nov. 2002; Vol. 52.