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Family health assessment aims at using a holistic approach to ensure the health of individuals, communities and families to ensure that care remains client centered. It focuses on ensuring that families acknowledge their health needs and address them by planning proper intervention strategies. Often, those individuals who are vulnerable may required an intervention that is supportive and on going so as to ensure health gains remain sustainable. The Gordon assessment has 11 components which are used to assess a family’s health (Edel and Mandelman, 2005).

Using Gordon’s assessment, the family profile is as follows. The family has a mother (39years), father (46years), four children, two girls (5 and 4 years old) and two boys (16 and 10 years. All the individuals are in good health. The ten year old boy was diagnosed with ADHD when he was 3 and OCD at the age of 6.

On the Health Perception/Health Management Pattern, the family scores themselves 7 on a scale of 1 to 10. 5 years ago the family rated themselves at 7 as well. The family does not use alcohol, smoke or use any drugs. The father has thalassemia minor, a genetic disorder inherited from his father. The 4year old daughter also inherited the blood disorder. The father mostly feels fatigue. The daughter was diagnosed with the blood disorder at one year when her hemoglobin was low.  The mother is in good health though she has minor gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). She takes protonix daily. The 5 year old boy and the 16 year old boy have no health conditions. The family engages in exercise activities such as hiking, biking, camping though not on a daily basis.  The parents also have an elliptical which the parents use about three times a week for a minimum of 30 minutes a time.

Nutritional/metabolic pattern

The family attempts to eat a healthy diet on a daily basis consisting of low fat/sodium, high fiber and consumption of whole wheat bread and white bread. The father tries to ensure that the children eat healthy meals. He mostly broils or bakes the fish/meat. The family ingest juices in moderation and they try to take as much water as possible. His role as the main person in food preparation has helped to ensure that the children eat healthy. Gordon’s framework refers to influences that affect food intake; these include knowledge of food preparation, family values and others. The person who prepares, secures and serves also influences the food intake (Janice, 2004). The father is so far a positive influence as far as healthy food intake.

The children enjoy eating vegetables. When making French fries at home, the family uses yams which are a healthier approach. Generally, the family’s appetite is good and none of the family members have shown changes in skin, hair, body weight or nail texture. However the father’s weight has been fluctuating since he lost his job and he has been spending a lot of time for caring for the children. He aims to lose 25lbs. The mother has lost 20lbs and has attained a favorable body weight. Her BMI is 22.6. The children are within the appropriate weight for their height or age according to the pediatrician.

Elimination pattern

The pattern of elimination varies with every individual in the family. The father has regular bowel movements (every morning after breakfast). The mother and the five year old daughter often suffer from constipation; the other three children have at least one bowel movement every day. There have not been any difficulties in voiding noticed recently. The appearance of the urine is yellow and clear without sediments. There is no pain on urination for any of the family members. The family uses laxatives only occasionally, particularly after a plane trip or a long car trip.

Activity/ Exercise pattern

The family does not exercise daily but they have an active lifestyle. The family enjoys activities such as hiking, swimming, hiking, camping and biking. The parents exercise on an elliptical. The children play sports like soccer, basketball and baseball during the school year. They are also involved in other activities such as karate, dance, piano and guitar lessons. Other family activities include watching television, playing video games though these are regulated and viewed as a reward. These activities help the family to build trust and unity.

Sleep/rest pattern

The quality and quantity of sleep seem to be adequate for this family because the children have a routine for sleep. The children sleep 9-10 hours every night while the parents sleep for about 6-7 hours. The quality of the mother’s sleep however may not be so good as she has to work alternate shifts due to her nursing job. This creates a potential problem as it is possible the mother may not get adequate rest especially when she has to work during the night and still keep up with the housework later in the day.

Cognitive perceptual pattern

None of the family members has any cerebrovascular disorders, neurologic infections, autoimmune disorders, neuropathies, oncologic and degenerative neurologic disorders. The mother, daughters and ten year old son all have one sensory input disorder which is an eye disorders. The boy is long-sighted, has astigmatism and a left lazy eye while their mother is short-sighted. The daughters are also long-sighted. The father underwent laser eye surgery 5years ago which resolved the need for him to wear glasses though he seems to encounter vision problems once in a while. There no other sensory disorders within the family. The father reports suffering from joint/muscle pain frequently which is relieved by use of cold or heat applications.

Self-perception/self-concept pattern

The ten year old boy has trouble expressing himself as a person due to his disability. There were vital cues that showed identity confusion, disturbances in self-esteem, feelings of powerlessness and altered body image. The boy has been receiving treatment for his depression though there still remains work to be done. The family reports themselves as being able to adjust to changes such as loss of employment and income. They are also aware of the risks to health posed by a failure to cope with change.

Roles and relationships

With regard to their current major relationships and roles in the family, the individual family members described the role of the mother as the main bread winner and the father as the care giver. Several issues such as the threat of change, actual change and loss are issues that may cause stress especially for the mother who has to combine both work and family roles.

Coping and Stress management

When asked how the family copes with stresses, they reported that it took them a couple of years to learn how to manage stress effectively. The coping strategies that the family uses include spending time with a friend or close family member, taking time away from one another and working. The family understands that stress is a necessary part of life. The mother pointed out that stress becomes problematic when the tolerance to stress is weak affecting a person’s daily activities.

Sexuality and Reproduction

The mother reported that she has had eight pregnancies and 4 births. The parents reported that they did not have difficulty in sexual functioning and had a satisfactory sexual relationship. They mentioned that the two older boys get sex education within the school system however they also reinforce the issues at home. The older boy has been taught the importance of proper testicular self-examination. The mother conducts regular breast self-examination.

Values and Beliefs

The family reports not having specific religious practices but they report that they believe in doing the right thing and being a good person generally. The family indicated that they value the family most. They are a close knit family and do a lot of activities together.

Summary

Holism and the totality of the individual’s interaction with the environment form the foundation for the family health assessment (Heardman, 2008; Janice, 2004). Gordon’s framework provides a solid position from which nurses can participate together with clients in decision making for their own healthcare. This family currently has a good health status. They do not have any obvious illnesses, rather they have regular health maintenance habits and regular health check ups. The family is generally health conscious. The family has a high level of physical activity and does not use drugs, alcohol or tobacco. They have a healthy diet consisting of high fiber foods and low fat foods with sufficient intake of fluids. They also have good elimination patterns with the exception of two family members who were having constipation. Leisure and recreation is mainly through outdoor activities and activities with the family.

The perception parameters are normal in all the family members, sleep is normal, rest is adequate for the children but the parents’ quality of rest and sleep seems inadequate. The family members are satisfied with the family relationships and roles. The mother has had 8 pregnancies and 4 childbirths, two girls and two boys. Both parents have a satisfactory sexual relationship and the two boys received some sexual education both at home and school. The family does not have any special religious practices but believe in doing the right thing and treating others the way one would want to be treated.

Nursing Diagnosis

• Anxiety related to being out of work manifested by difficulty in sleeping and verbalization of stress by father (Heardman, 2008)
• Disturbed sleeping pattern related to altered activity patterns manifested by difficulties in sleeping and changes in activity level
• Potential for interrupted family processes related to father’s recent job loss and mother’s combination of work role and family roles manifested by mother’s report of inadequate sleep and father’s statements of feeling useless.

Family Health Promotion Strategies

Several family health promotion strategies can be applied as interventions to the diagnoses above. One of the major stressors in the family is the fact that the father has no job. To deal with this the father has been occupying himself with caring for the family. The anxiety can be reduced by the father looking into employment agencies where he can find employment in line with his qualifications and experience. Additionally, he could also identify a hobby that he has that could provide an avenue for earning money. It will keep him occupied while at the same time bringing in some money for the family. This intervention needs to be done as a combined effort between the nurse, the father and the family so that the nurse provides assistance in identifying the father’s strengths and does not control the situation.

The mother also needs to rest more due to her alternate shifts. She could schedule a specific time for sleeping after doing a night shift and make sure she adheres to this. The older children can also assist in the household chores so as to leave their parents with more time for rest and sleep. This is bound to reduce their exhaustion levels and also contribute to strengthening the family unity. This should be done in cooperation with all the family members.

Systems Theory

The systems theory holds that objects relate to each other by interdependence or regular interaction (Skytnner, 2005). According to the systems theory, the whole is greater than the sum of all parts (Skytnner, 2005). Changes in these parts (subsystems) lead to changes in the whole system, that is what affects the subsystem will eventually affect the system. The system usually works to restore homeostasis in response to changes.  This system theory guides the assessment of family in the sense that most families are systems with subsystems. Most families also fall on a continuum that falls between dysfunctional and healthy. The actions of family members affect all the members of the system. When individual members change, the family (system) seeks to restore itself. In this way a family is greater than the sum of its parts.

Conclusion

Gordon’s framework is a helpful tool in making family diagnosis. It is useful in determining the psychosocial functioning of the family and provides a framework for intervention by providing the necessary information about family members and their interactions and roles.

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Public relations department is one of the key functional unit of any organization, whether government and or privately owned. It provides a channel through which information flow from organization to the public and vice versa. It is fundamental in shaping the image of organization image and fostering good relationship with the public. Choice of public relations channels is very important to an organization. Effectiveness of such channels in achieving desired goals is also very crucial. Gradual changes both in business and public environment has also a key role in determining the best research channel to use e.g. internet access, increase in literacy levels, media coverage, people understanding of their rights, diversity in terms of preferences among individuals and so on also influences the public relations procedures of an organization. The procedures used should aim at earning understanding and while at the same time seek to influence behavior and opinion of the targeted audience. (Theaker 2004 p 4)

An ever changing environment and highly competitive business environment has made research in public relations to be very important. Additionally, effectiveness of public relations programs of an organization also affects its performance and loyalty of its customers in case of business entities. The organization public relations procedures should therefore seek to meet the changes in the environment they operate in. One way of ensuring good public relations is by carrying out research so as to identify the relevant areas of improvement so as the necessary steps can be proactively taken instead of reacting to negative effects associated with bad image. Thus research in public relations has become an important aspect. (Theaker 2004)

Development of research in public relations has been propelled by the shift of public relations as a communication technique in which production and distribution of information is the only role to communication manager role in which the focus is building and maintaining relationships with key stakeholders. Thus in achieving this, adopting the necessary standards has become important and indispensable. Technology, along with gradual changes in management environment has also called for more accountability. Both informal and formal research has become very relevant in evaluating the organization operations. Need for research for evaluation and measurement of public relations has also continued to gain momentum. Evaluation of public relations has also become one of the constituents of the prevailing issues in public relations research. (Grunig 1983; IPRA 1994)

Additionally, efforts of various scholars to write on this topic has lead to understanding of public relations and also identified gaps of knowledge that requires to be covered through more research on public relations.  There has also been call for scholars not only to understand public relations as persuasive communication only meant to bend public thinking, but also to understand and be updated to the current environment happenings and react to the changes accordingly.(Marvin 1984). There has also been questioning of the whole theoretical basis of public relations and the need to review them through carrying pure and basic research. (Macnamara n.d.: Daymon & Holloway 2010,)

 

 

Formative (strategic) and evaluative research emphasizes have gradually been becoming part of various organization in their effort towards attaining a competitive advantage against the competitors. This has been more than monitoring the media reports. The research has also moved beyond the four basic types of public relations research which include environmental monitoring, communications audits, public relations audits and social audits.(Macnamara n.d.).

Knowledge on appropriate research design, construction and use of questionnaire, sampling, collection and analysis of statistics has gradually become of great importance. Research in public relations has become an on-going integral process. Contemporary research on public relations has been involving fact-finding, planning, communication and evaluation of the progress of the recommended way out by such research. Action, communication and the evaluation aspects of the research in public relations has become part and parcel of many organizations. Many organizations have also been gradually emphasizing on the importance of research in public relations to ensure effectiveness of programs and assess the effects of the programs. (Hunt & Grunig 1984; Macnamara n.d.)

Research have become an important tool while focusing on public relations messages readability, assess whether language used was factual or emotive. Through research, involvement of the readers in an effort to find if they had a problem with sentences order, the paragraph or ideas is also possible. In addition to this, research has become useful gathering information about the stakeholders view about the public relations program, understand the preference of various demographic groups, lifestyles, values and attitudes to the organization and media use. research also helps an organization to have knowledge of the relevant channels to use in communication with the target audience i.e. is it through the internet, TV channels, Radio, Newspapers, or other information posting channels.(Traedwell 2003)

Research has also become an important instrument in unraveling unnoticed attitudes about companies operations, and help in understanding the organization environment under which the organization is operating in. Such knowledge enables the public relations personnel to make relevant public relation strategies in line with the current organizational environment. Understanding of political, legal and regulatory bodies and knowing what these bodies say about the organization is also very important to public relations program of the company. Research has eventually been the best way in attaining such information.  Research also involves understanding the industry in which the organization operate in; what are others doing in ensuring good public relations? It has become a powerful instrument in ensuring good communication among the employees, and the management. (Traedwell 2003 p 55).

Gradually, many organization have been employing research in ensuring the message sent to the public about the organization is well written and meets with the expectations of the organization goals and cannot mess the organization image Research has also become vital in ensuring that such messages are free from confusion, and ambiguity as the right communication techniques is unraveled. The media available to reach out to the audience are also known through research. Such knowledge has become very helpful to the organization as the public relations department get informed of the most appropriate media to reach the specific audience. Research has also become imperative in evaluating certain program ie helps in knowing if certain program achieved its aims intended by the organization.(Traedwell, D (2003)

The development of research in public relations has seen use of various. Qualitative research method has become more applicable for the public relations study. This method enables researchers to be closely involved with the research participants. While developing a research for public relations, the researcher should first identify the problem. In identifying the problem, the researcher should seek to understand what is happening, know the exact problem, source of the concern, what the problem involve or affect, who are involved or affected by the problem, how are such parties affected or involved, and finally establish why such problem concerns the organization and the other stakeholders which may include the customers, government, non governmental organization, investors, employees and so on. The research development should then identify relevant parties involved in the study as the researcher seek to unravel the best solution to the problem. These will be source of primary information to the research study. This step should involve choosing an appropriate sample from the population of the affected parties. Random sampling methods are best method as they are free from biasness of the researcher. The research should also consult secondary sources on studies handling the same problem at hand or any problem related to such problem so as to give the researcher an insight to studying how to solve the problem at hand. Qualitative should be used as this is the best for social sciences as such research will be an attempt to study human behavior and factors surrounding such behavior. (Daymon & Holloway 2010).

However development of research in public relations has not been free from barriers. This includes lack of budgetary allocation, and time by various organizations. In addition to these inadequate understanding of research in public relations has been lacking. This has been due to lack of knowledge of nature of public relations and its function to the society. Fundamental questions about public relations have also not been clear to many people. Lack of research methodology for evaluating public relation programs, objective have in the past been cited as the main cause of image problem of public relations. (Grunig 1983)

 

 

Trends in research techniques given new technology:

The influence of technology on research techniques is unavoidable and very eminent in our contemporary world. Technology has come up with less costly research techniques. A researcher may not be required to physically administer questionnaire to the respondents or even conduct face to face interviews with the respondents. The internet (World Wide Web) has become one of the most utilized tools in carrying out research in public relations. For instance certain posting on the internet meant to communicate to the intended audience may provide for commenting from the reader; which may include evaluation of the message, any point not understood, any complaint about the organization and so on. Such information is usually gathered together and analyzed so as to create more effective public relations programs and also ensure good organization image. Nowadays, questionnaires may be posted in the website where respondents may access them and respond to them accordingly. Interviews can also be conducted online through chatting where the interviewer may communicate with the respondent as if it was a face to face interview. Email is another internet component which is also very useful in carrying out research in our contemporary world. The targeted respondents may be emailed with questionnaires to answer and also be requested to email back the filled questionnaires.  Televisions have also been utilized in carrying out research in public relations.  Nowadays, it is possible for researcher to communicate with viewers, have them comments on issues being researched on as the researcher collects the information for further analysis.  Radio stations are also important channels that have been used in research. Since this channel reach out to many people, organization researchers secure programs with specific radio station so as to collect information related to problem at hand by collecting listener’s views about the organization and what they feel should be corrected. (Silverman 2004 p119; Rust & Espinoza 2006).

Ethical Issues in Research

Ethical issues in research revolve around the participants in a certain research. A research should be based on voluntary participation. The participants should not be coerced to participate in a certain research. For instance, a public relations research which involves employees of the organization should not involve coercing the chosen employee to participate in such an exercise. It should be under the prerogative of the targeted respondents to choose whether to participate or not. Any use of threat, and force will lender the research exercise unethical and may compromise the accuracy of the findings and consequently miss the aims of the research. (Behi & Nolan n.d.; Chensey 1993)

Another ethical issue associated with voluntary participation is the right to withdrawal from participating in a certain research if one feels uncomfortable with the process. Such assurance is very important in every research and will also not result into coercion of the participants to continue in a process they feel uncomfortable with e.g. the participant may feel that his/her continual of participation in the research threatens her/his life , then it will be ethical to allow him/her withdraw from the whole process. (Behi & Nolan nd; Chensey 1993)

Second ethical issue includes ensuring an informed consent. It is the obligation of the researcher to inform the intended participants of all what the research involves, any danger and a risk associated with the research, so as they make an informed decision on what they are just about to participate in.  Research ethical standards requires researcher not to involve the participants in research that may lead to participants harm owing to their participation. In case of public relation research, researcher should first of all explains what the research involves, any risk associated with the research and avoid involving the participants in a research that may lead to their harm; owing to their opinions, views and so on. This ethical issue is also important in cases where minors may be included as part of the targeted participants. In such a case the parent consent or the authority to which decision of the minor are entrusted should give the consent. It may also be required for the parent to such participants consent to the participation of their children. The parent, or the head of the institution in which the minor is residing should sign a consent declaration form. (Behi & Nolan nd; Chensey 1993)

Third ethical issue involves confidentiality. The researcher should guarantee the participant of the confidentiality of the information they give i.e. the information will not availed to another party who is not directly involved in the research. This is an important ethical issue which if not assured, the participants may refrain from giving accurate and more information e.g. A public relations research involving the employees, the customers, and even those closely related to the organization management for instance needs to ensure confidentiality is maintained. Employees will not be ready to give any information which they think will affect their employment or relationship with the employer or with other employees if confidentiality is not assured. Those closely related to the employees or management of an organization may shy from giving negative views about the organization if they may think such information will not be taken in good faith by the management or employee. In the same case, customers not like to be known to have given certain information about the organization in which they usually shop from. Thus confidentiality assurance will greatly influence quantity and quality of information availed by the participants. Some targeted participants refuse to participate if they think such information is likely to be leaked to another party. (Behi & Nolan nd; Chensey 1993)

Confidentiality assurance may not be enough to convince some targeted participants. In such a case, anonymity will be another ethical issue. This ensures that the participant remains unnamed throughout the research. The researchers themselves are also not expected to know the participant’s name. This guarantees enough privacy although it may not be feasible in real cases. (Behi & Nolan nd)

In case a certain program is being studied, the right to service may also be another ethical issue. Such case arises when a no-treatment control group is required. In this case a no treatment control group entails a group of participants supposed not to get treatment or program being studied. Those supposed to part of no-treatment control group may feel unequally treated by the researcher and that their rights have been denied. (Behi & Nolan nd; Chensey 1993)

Other ethical issues in research include the integrity of the researcher, field of study, cultural variations, and role conflict.  Most participants are not likely to cooperate with researchers who they question his/her character. They will be reluctant to offer information required. They will not trust his/her assurance of confidentiality and anonymity. Field of study may also be part of ethical concern to the participants. Some cultures may not encourage participating in a research involving unacceptable activities although this usually affects the scientific research mostly in medicine. Cultural variation may also lead to an ethical issue as people are diverse in terms of cultural believes e.g. some respondents may require to know the religious beliefs of the researcher before availing any information to him/her. (Behi & Nolan nd; Chensey 1993)

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The early stages of development of any child play a very cardinal role in the future of any child. These stages should therefore be handled with expended zeal. In general living with overly depressed parent tends to increase the risk of a child’s cognitive development. Besides, this brings about behavioral problems among children. In a report, maternal depression, poverty, children’s cognitive and family status are all products of the economic state of the family (Child Development, p 810).

Research finds a consistent correlation between the child’s intellectual development, cognitive development and poverty. Poverty is particularized in the development of the child. Gulati et al (Gulati, J. K., Dutta, J., p 122) argues that persistent poverty levels are in fact as detrimental to the child as illnesses.

The effects that are experienced in the cognitive and affective domains have a direct effect on the educational outcomes and the development of any child. These effects are both indirectly and directly moderated, mediated transitional processes. Within the precincts of this argument, strategies for the alleviation of poverty are central if these far reaching effects of poverty are to be mitigated.

Research shows (Pesonen, A., Räikkönen, K., Heinonen, K., Andersson, S., Hovi, P., Järvenpää, A., Eriksson, J. G., Kajantie, E., p 613) that Children who come from poor families are found to have retarded growth. This is experienced particularly in the ages of two years to four years. The research reveals that poor children tend to be shorter than their counterparts from rich families.  Similar traits are experienced in the development of cognition. In the final analysis, the poor child’s development is hampered altogether.

In addition, underprivileged children had small body sizes than their counterparts regardless of the size of the parents. Subsequent, research shows that poor children are more prone to health issues than those who hail from well off families. Some of the diseases tend to impede the developmental prospects of the child. Most particularly, the research sees malnutrition as a common problem.

When developmental tests are undertaken on the children, those who hail from affluent families have higher developmental outcomes while those from poor families have delayed development. Within the utility of the study of human development, there is sufficient modus operandi for follow-ups on the matter and far reaching implications of the entire state. Through the stages, the child has varied physiological and psychological needs. The state of the parent plays a role in the effectiveness and efficacy of provision of the said needs.

Developmental Stages and the Probable Effects of Poverty

Introduction

An overview of the developmental stages and the needs of each stage would give a basis for a better understanding of the effects of poverty on the development of the child and any adolescent. The stages developed herein are based on the Erik Erickson’s eight developmental stages.

Within the mandate of Erickson, the developmental stages overlap and a smooth interlope of the stages depends on the provision of the necessary requisite needs; physiological, biological and psychological needs (Holzer, H J., Schanzenbach, D., W., Duncan, G J.; Ludwig, J., p 51). The satisfaction of the needs are largely dependent on the economic wellbeing of the parents.

Erickson treats each stage as a psychosocial crisis. He argues that the crisis needs resolution. Subsequent, the resolution of the crisis has to be undertaken through a concerted effort by both the child and the environment. The environment revolves mainly around the role of the parent in the development of the child.

Erickson asserts that the stages have to be perceived in an architectural sense such that each stage has to be handled with utter keenness if the child has to undergo a successful transition from one level to another. According to Erickson (Fauth, R. C., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., p 81) the analogy of building a house serves the right approach to the care giving and the resolution of the crisis during the development of a child. If the development of a child is hampered at some level, like in the construction process, Erik argues, the entire process is treacherous.

Developmental Stages and Poverty

At birth, the infant has to learn some basic trust against basic mistrust. This stage comes in the period between one and two years (Fauth, R. C., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., p 69). The handling of the child by the parents at the stage determines the child’s feeling of security and mistrust. When the child is well-handle, loved or nurtured, the chid develops optimism and feelings of security. Children in environments shrouded in poverty and lack are seen to be prone to feelings of insecurity and mistrust.

During early childhood, a child will experience a second crisis that is psychosocial. This is experienced in the ages between 19 months to about 42 months. Erickson asserts that a well ‘parented child’ has better chances of developing both cognitively and affectively (Wood, D., p 711). The children bred in well off families are believed to come out of this stage very self-confident; with a lot of initiative and independence. In the event that children are not well bred during this stage, the children come out to be stubborn and with a lot of negativism.

Children from families that are in incessant lack of basic needs end up missing the love and attention of the parents, hence developing resentment which impedes their overall development. On the contrary, children from poor families seem to be ashamed of their selves. These attribute inhibits the development process of the children (Walker-Dalhouse, D., Risko, V. J., p 84). Within the strength of this argument it is clear that the endowment of the family will always have an effect on the development of the child through the domains. Children from poor family are believed to have less affection than children who come from families where the parents provide everything that the child asks.

During Erickson’s third developmental stage, the play stage, play is a common feature yet with very pivotal roles in the development of the child. However, the environment of the child determines the nature of play the child is bound to get engaged (Pesonen, A., et al p 617). While children from rich families will have to engage in plays items that are technological in their orient, the counterparts from poor families have no choice on play items except those provided by nature.

Where the children are provided with sufficient play items, the development of their psychomotor skills is relatively fast. The child develops skills on how to imagine and develop solutions to problems if the play items provided ignite the mind towards the same. However, it needs to be appreciated that children from poor families have no access to such play items. Their family struggles to provide the basic physiological needs as postulated by Abraham Maslow (Holzer, H J., Schanzenbach, D., W., Duncan, G J.; Ludwig, J., p 42).

Socially, play ignites the sense of cooperation with others. Where the families are in abject poverty and lack, children may have the least opportunity for interacting with others. Where such an opportunity is accessed, the children have no chance for interaction with others as they tend to feel ashamed of the status of their family as has been mentioned. Within the strength of this argument, the social development of the child tends to be impeded.

During school age, according to Erickson, the fourth level psychosocial crisis is solved. This happens during the junior and earlier years of the high school. During the stage, children are expected to master formal skills that would be utilised in life. While this stage would be effectively resolved, the diversity in the endowment of the background of the children presents a challenge (Wood, D., p 711). Children from poor families may not attend school after all or at their very best; their attendance would be very inconsistent. These inconsistencies may bring about lapses in the development of the child.

The well endowed families on their part have the children fully in the system. These children are fully trained through the school system how to interact with the others through teamwork, free play and adjustment. While those from poor families may have these traits very inherent in them, without the exposure, the traits can not be adequately developed.

Erickson (Holzer, H J., Schanzenbach, D., W., Duncan, G J.; Ludwig, J., p 49) argues that children filled with guilt and shame experience inferiority and defeat even in circumstances where the defeat is not forthcoming. Children who are not exposed to school environment, Erik argues, are not self-disciplined. He believed that through the homework given to the children, the children are able to handle tasks on their own (Fauth, R. C., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., p 57). Poor families may perhaps not even provide the basic requisite for the child to attend school. In the final analysis, such children end up lagging behind in their cognitive development prospects.

When children effectively master their arithmetic, reading and social studies, they gain confidence in their lives. Continued tackling of the homework given to the children on daily basis makes the children develop self-discipline of an annual basis. The successive resolution of the challenges inherent during the learning stages further gives the children a feeling of autonomy and initiative.  Children with initiative will have a better chance of developing industry compared to those who are withdrawn. However, children who have feelings of mistrust have tendencies of doubting their future.

At the age of between 13 years and 20 years , the child, who will have turned into an adolescent starts attempting to find the answer to the question, ‘who am I’. The adolescent experiences identity diffusion and learning identity. During the stage, the adolescents try to experiment with their delinquency, rebellion and self-doubt. The adolescents tend to be diffused in what right way they are supposed to move.

According to Erickson (Santa, A., p 70), a successful adolescent will always precede a successful adulthood. At the stage, the young adult develops self-certainty. Though this is the ideal case for an adolescent from an average family, children from poor family exhibit opposite traits of self doubts and self-consciousness. During the stage, children experiment with constructive roles and avoid negative traits (Rodgers Jr., Harrell R., Payne, L., p 14). However, Erickson argues that this stage is largely influenced by the earlier stages of development.

Where the child has been bred well from the initial stages of development, Erickson asserts that the psychosocial traits are well developed through life. During the later stages of adolescence, the child develops sexual identity. The child identifies himself or herself with either manhood or womanhood. The adolescent at these stages tries to seek for leadership and particularly through inspirations from individuals.

On the contrary, children from poor families are more preoccupied with their survival needs than any inspiration. Overall, the children from the poor families lag behind in their psychosocial development. Consequently, whereas those from the well-to-do families are preoccupied with inspirations that are congruent and desirable, the poor are trapped in the fulfilment of physiological needs.

Ardently, Erickson (Walker-Dalhouse, D., Risko, V. J., p 86) finds a pronounced correlation between the endowment and the psychosocial development particularly during adolescents. He claims that children from endowed families have a big advantage in the psychosocial development compared to their cronies from poor families particularly during adolescent.

‘……in our culture, adolescence affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them.’

From,  Fram, M. S., Miller-Cribbs, J. E.; Van Horn, L., p 314

 

It is evident from the quote that indeed the children, then adolescent, have the least consideration towards their psychosocial development. Erickson emphasises the two classes; the middleclass and the upper class.

In the sixth stage of development according to Erickson, two phases are experienced. Adolescents develop isolation traits versus intimate traits. Vividly, those whose background is a poor one will tend to have feeling of resentment and would prefer being left with only those in their class. Those from the rich background feel confident and stretch out their hands for love.

Those from the poor background would have extraverted reactions to the intimacy. They may opt to go it alone resultant from the experience they had with their parents.  The adolescents from the rich families however feel confident making relationships particularly having experienced tranquillity through their family. Besides, what can enhance the relationship in terms of education and resources appears to be readily at their disposal.

Working trends are developed during the early adolescent stages and are expected to be utilised in the seeking and the provision of basic needs for the family. In the seventh stage, the psychosocial crisis seeks for much generativity which is exercised in the relationships through to marriage and parenting (Reyes, H., Pérez-Cuevas, R., Sandoval, A., Castillo, R., Santos, J. I., Doubova, S. V., Gutiérrez, G., p 76). This motivates the adult to develop senses of productivity and creativity.

In the event that the psychosocial crises are effectively resolved, the adult develops integrity and peak adjustment. In addition, the adult becomes independent and tries to adapt to the new roles developed. The young adult becomes intimate without the least strain, regret and guilt. On the other hand, where the young adult did not resolve the psychosocial crisis adequately, one approaches life with much disgust and despair (Fram, M. S., Miller-Cribbs, J. E.; Van Horn, L., p 317).

The foregoing discussion gives a clear correlation through the stages between poverty and the psychosocial development. However, it equally needs to be appreciated that the there are other factors coupled with poverty. Given the multifaceted nature of psychosocial development, the resiliency theory is worth review for thorough gain of insight into the developmental stages.

Application of the Resilience Theory to Developmental Stages

While the theory is a broad based affair, it does largely apply to psychological traits in its analytical process. The theory is a broad field of study, cutting across policies, families and workplaces particularly looking at the traits that are inherent within the socialization process of persons (Gulati, J. K., Dutta, J., p 120). The theory cuts across all the aspects. However, the theory finds much application in the study of the development of children.

The theory has been taken to have pronounced reference to the successful adaptation and the competence of individuals to their environment. The proponents of the theory argue that the adaptation tools are mainly intellectual ability and temperament. Clearly from the foregoing discussion, it is clear that the endowment of the family has a surmountable influence on the development of the child.

Subsequent to the influence, any child has to adapt to the environment adequately to be able to go through the developmental stages. In adapting to the environment, four basic factors are central in the psychosocial development of any individual (Rodgers Jr., Harrell R., Payne, L., p 17). The factors are inclusive of the positive mindset of the individual, security of attachment, social support and the development of competence among individuals. The social support emanates from the school, religious groups, the family and the neighbors.

According to the resilience theory, the security of attachment of the child is the main determinant of the child’s wellbeing. When the child is securely attached, they tend to develop tools for self soothe, trust, love and develop problem solving approaches for themselves. Children who receive inconsistent and care that is less responsive have the tendency to become indiscriminant in seeking for assistance and love from their peers (Child Development, p 799). This is because these children tend to feel very insecure besides feeling very disorganized in their undertakings.

The resilience theory asserts that good care for the children normally increases their cognitive skills. If for example, a family has frequent discussions and readings together, the child brought up within such families normally have their children enter school more prepared than families that leave their children on their very own. On the other hand those that are brought up without this attention are analyzed as taking longer to catch up in class.

The attachment of the children to their families and their environment are therefore very important for the support of the learning process of children because it increases the resilience of the children. Parents who live in abject poverty will have the least time for their children and could not have the resources for the furthering the any discussions and talks with their children. The attachment acts as protective factor for the child.

According to the resilience theory (Walker-Dalhouse, D., Risko, V. J., p 85), the attitude, the level of confidence and the beliefs of the child determine the child’s approach to the resolution of any life stresses that would affect the child. Children who are made to feel as victims as a result of their struggle towards resolving a conflict end up being less assertive, energetic and positive. Such children end up believing that they are not able to bring about the necessary changes that they have yearned.

Optimism is a very important aspect during the development of any child (Wood, D., p 710). The optimism will only be brought up in an environment that has security of attachment for the child. This will be attained through supporting the children when they have any challenges. For example, when a child falls out of their mistakes, he should not be victimized but should be encouraged to stand up.  Such children end up developing feelings of resentment.

However, it needs to be appreciated, according to the resilience theory, that the temperament of a child equally plays a very essential role in the development of optimism within the child (Santa, A., p 68). Though temperament is an inborn trend, the reaction of the parents towards the actions of the children has a large effect on the development of the children and should be treated with utmost care (Joav H., Morad, M., Carmeli, E., p 5). The parent’s reaction and attention to the concerns of the child therefore determines the overall reaction and development of the child. In case where the parent is equally stressed from life stresses, the child may be devastated and therefore affect his development. The parent has to be very patient to foster the attachment.

The belief system of the child is also developed to a reasonable extent by the school, the entire family and the religious group. These institutions provide a powerful means of inoculation for the children against any stresses. In addition, adults that live in the neighborhood and at school have an equally important role in molding the belief pattern of the child (Child Development, p 804). The peers that the child meets at the church, the synagogue or at the mosque also impart very cardinal values in the child. These peers are seen as instilling moral compass utilizable in situations that would otherwise be dicey.

According to the resilience theory, children should develop some competencies to their core. Once the children have the knowledge that they are able to adequately handle certain tasks believed to be challenging. This feeling is seen as a means of sustenance for the child through challenging circumstances. Consequently, when children are brought up to handle challenging tasks, they end up making efforts through life with believe that they are capable. This becomes reinforcement and a driving force behind the development of the child.

Goal setting is very tidal in the resilience theory (Santa, A., p 66). However, the setting of goals will always differ from the one family and child to the other. Children who come from middle class and upper class families are said to set their goals very high irrespective of their capabilities. On the other extreme, children from the lower cadre of society are said to set their goals and aspiration very low regardless of their capabilities. This is attributed to the children’s diverse exposure. Children from rich families are relatively exposed. The counterparts from the lower class are not informed enough to make informed choices that are in line with their capabilities.

The community (Reyes, H., et al, p 79) and the school have a big role in the development of the child. Nevertheless, it needs to be observed that the children from poor backgrounds and those from rich backgrounds would not be schooled in the same school. The facilities that are provided in the schools are different and hence preparing the child for varied life challenges as though their psychosocial needs are not similar. This brings about the differences in the psychosocial development as has been discussed through this paper.

Conclusion

The environment under which the child is brought up determines the psychosocial development of the child. While the development will take place according to the stages of development by Erickson, (Gulati, J. K., Dutta, J., p 116) the family’s overall endowment can not be wished away as a factor that influences the development of the child. This environment determines the nature of the socialization agent that the child interacts with and hence the overall development. It is evidenced through the discussion that children from well-off families will have the best facilities for their development while those from poor families tend to develop by shear fluke.

The resilience theory seems to support the whole hypothesis that in deed, a richly endowed environment is capable of offering the best that would support the cognitive, affective and social development of any child. The secure attachment of the child to the community, the family and the school setting is imperative for the development of the child (Rodgers Jr., Harrell R., Payne, L., p 13). When the children grow up with the belief that their action can make a difference, their development all round is bolstered. Overall, whatever the capability of the child, the environment and the endowment of the family play a key role in the psychosocial development of the child.

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Ever since the 1930s, economic crises have been common around the world. This was the case particularly with the developing economies going through trade and financial liberalization in the post-1980 period; however it has become the case also for the developed economies with the current crisis ongoing since 2007. With every crisis, economists seek the proper way to smooth out the deterioration of economic balance. For some economists, crises – including recessions – can be overcome through liberal economic policies that have to do with private sector efforts. On the other hand some economists think that state intervention is more than necessary in times of economic crises. For these economists who are for state interventionist policies, government has the means to help economy recover in times of crises. Accordingly, government spending is therefore an influential tool for recovery.

Government spending is classified into three parts. One of them is government acquisition of goods and services to satisfy the needs of individuals and / or society known to be government final consumption spending. The other one is acquisition of goods and services in order to supply benefits for the future, mostly related to infrastructure investments, known to be government gross capital formation, where acquisition of goods and services can be realized by the production of the government. Government expenditures that are not about acquisition of goods and services, but do cover transferring of money as in the case of social security payments, are known to be transfer payments. Government final consumption spending and government gross capital formation make up the largest items in gross domestic product (GDP) of an economy.

All these three types of spending can be financed through taxation, seignorage and government borrowing. Government final consumption spending and government gross capital formation make up the largest items in gross domestic product (GDP) of an economy. Governments can attempt to stimulate economies in times of stagnation, crises or recession through government spending. There are examples of efficient fiscal stimuli through increased government spending to help economies recover from recession like the spending that occurred during 1930s to help the United States out of recession.

On the other hand, there might be cases that fiscal stimuli may not be efficient compared to expectations. It was John Maynard Keynes, who first thought that government spending could be an efficient fiscal tool who led to the use of term known to be Keynesian economics in time[1]. According to Keynesian (and to some extent post-Keynesian) economics, increased government spending is expected to increase aggregate demand, and therefore raise consumption that will stimulate the economy as a whole. On the other hand, classical economists do not like government intervention; however they approve it to a certain extent. Neo-classical economists think that government intervention should not be an alternative for recovery in times of economic recession. For neo-classical economists, in the short run government spending can provide stimulus to aggregate supply. However, they argue that the long run effects will be negative and that also even if the economy is not intervened to function through its own mechanisms; it will recover through the competitive price dynamics.

Economic recession stands for business cycle contraction implying a general slowdown regarding economic activities over a determined period of time. Macroeconomic indicators such as GDP, capacity utilization, profitability and profits of companies, incomes of households, investment spending and naturally employment all go down and / or decrease during times of recession. Moreover bankruptcies and unemployment goes up during recessionary times.

In brief, this paper will be about the investigation of the impact of the government spending through fiscal stimulus on economic recessions. Accordingly, answers to some questions in conjunction with the recession-related topics shall be sought, while the emphasis will be on the relationship between the government spending and the process of recovery from economic recessions. Empirical evidence, as well as past data regarding fiscal stimuli used to revive economies in times of recession will be analyzed so as to understand and serve the hypothesis of the paper, which is “A package of fiscal stimulus through increased government spending can be an effective means to stabilize the economy in the short run.”

1. 1.                  Literature Review on the Relationship between Recession and Government Spending

This section goes through the literature on the relationship between government spending and recession. The section consists of three parts, first part deals with studies that find government spending to be ineffective during times of recession; second part is about the studies that find government spending to be effective. The last subsection consists of studies that claim that government spending during times of recession can be effective or ineffective depending on the conditions.

 

1.1.      Studies that Find Government Spending to be Ineffective During Times of Recession

There are no clear relationships proven by economists regarding the effects of government spending on growth including times of recession. On the other hand, there are a number of findings that provide support for a negative relationship between economic recovery and government spending in the long run. For instance, government spending had an adverse effect on the economy of the United States of America (the U.S.) for the period between 1970 and 1995, which included some economic crisis times for the U.S. such as the oil shock of the 1970s.[2] The state of the recession experienced in the U.S. in 1990 – 1991 was triggered as a result of a consumption shock along 1990 – 1991, which was directly affected by the U.S. attack against Iraq during those years. Although government spending was high along 1990 and 1992 thanks to the military expenditures on the rise; the recovery from the recession was rather slow.[3] Although Blanchard (1993) does not say it directly, it can be seen from this analysis that government spending might not have direct effects on growth specifically related to the mood and confidence of customers. In case of Israel, her economy for the 1952 – 1965 periods, the exogenous military factors were also thought to be much effective, which was highly dependent on government spending to survive for the pre-1970 period.[4]

From a similar point of view, Fölster and Henrekson (2001) have found that enlarged public expenditures had a negative effect on growth for some rich economies for the 1970 – 1995 periods. Government consumption had adverse effects on economic growth for 98 countries that were analyzed for the 1960 – 1985 period.[5] Government consumption usually slowed down economic growth pace of economies.[6] The cross country data for the period between 1960 and 1985, showed that the ratio of imported to domestically produced capital goods in the composition of investment has had a significant positive effect on per capita income growth rates especially in developing countries.[7] Using an endogenous growth model of an open economy, Lee (1995) found that government consumption of economic output was directly related to slower growth.

Developed economies such as the U.S. economy might put great emphasis on grants-in-aid as part of government spending during economic recession times along 1960 – 1985, with some exceptions. Battaglini and Coate (2008) have recently analyzed the behavior of fiscal policies related to government spending; where they thought that a cyclical behavior for fiscal policy could be exist. Battaglini and Coate (2008) have found that government debt usually went up during economic growth times, while they went down during recessions, resembling government spending trends that are down during recessionary times, as well. Government size had an essential role on economic growth, meaning the larger the government the higher unemployment rates for the OECD economies analyzed for 1970 – 1999 period.[8] Through analysis of OECD countries for 1975 – 1998 periods found that the ratio of government spending to GDP was going up at times of recession through government consumption, transfers, subsidies and capital expenditures, although there are no clear evidences that such an increase eventually leads to recovery from recession.[9] A study on a sample of 92 countries and a sample of OECD countries concluded that the more volatile the economies, the less growth pace they have. Additionally, if governments tried to stabilize the volatility through increased government spending, there is more possibility that there will be a recession. The study outcome depicted that government spending to stimulate or stabilize the economy did not give the desired results.[10]

There also exists a negative relationship between economic growth and government spending in the recessionary post-war situations. This was finding of a study that analyzed 113 countries.[11] Another study carried on 59 middle income countries analyzed for 1960 – 1985 period also showed a similar relationship. However, the negative effects of government spending were three times stronger for socialist economies compared to other economies that were analyzed. This finding could be a denominator of the need for efficiency for government spending, for government spending in non-socialist countries does not give so negative results comparatively.[12]. Fall in fixed investment was also found to be the main reason for the economic recession in the USA economy despite the growth in government spending in the second half of the 1940 – 1950 periods. [13]

The studies exemplified in this section have the following common characteristics:

–               They were usually carried out for the period between 1960 – 1995;

–               They do not directly show that government spending has adverse effects for recovery from recession; nevertheless its negative effects usually stemming from inefficient allocation and use of sources do depict a negative relationship between government spending and recovery from a recession.

–               There are exceptional cases like the military situation in Israel, or the direct vulnerability of the U.S. economy from global conditions due to the size of the economy, or the post World War II period in the United States, which still point that government spending is far from being effective for recovery.

–               Less developed economies are less responsive to efforts to help end recession through government spending.

 

1.2.      Studies That Find Government Spending Effective in Times of Recession

Despite the widely accepted mainstream idea that government spending to boost economic growth during times of recession is not effective, there are studies that imply a positive relationship between economic growth and government spending as well. For instance, crowding out and rent seeking concerns can be overestimated and that the effects of public investments on growth could be positive.[14] Additionally, government spending could be effective for economies, specifically on the levels of output.[15] Moreover, there are many studies that have shown the efficiency of government spending on education resulting with economic growth. However, this is usually long-run growth phenomena less related with recessionary times. [16]

Government spending on capital formation, development assistance, private investment and trade-openness has positive effect on economic growth.[17] A study that analyzed 19 OECD countries for the period 1970 to 2002 found that increased government spending through expansionary fiscal policies could be more effective during times of recession, compared to times of economic expansion. It was also found that this effect was felt more deeply in economies where consumer credit depth is less comparatively. [18]

On the other hand, neglecting government spending as an option to boost economic growth and to recover from recessions might lead to worse situations. [19] Kormendi and Meguire (1990) have shown that the government policies that were applied by the British government in 1930 and 1980s contrasted with each other. While policies that were applied in 1930 were partially useful and they were demand-side policies that necessitated government support and spending; it was just the opposite case during 1980s. Although economic parameters have shown slight recovery due to increased privatization and less government interference in the economy during recession times in Britain in 1980s, this was done at the cost of unemployment policies that led to poverty of millions in the country.

Also, the economic parameters were still shaky in 1990s despite reduced government intervention in time. As a result, government supported economic development boosted by government spending is still a requirement for economies.[20] Pollin (2002) has analyzed the state of the U.S. economy from the end of 1990s to 2001. The recessionary period observed by Pollin (2002) was partially overcome thanks to increased government spending. However, these expenditures owed much to the money collected by local and national governments in 1990s and they were consumed to help economy boost. Moreover, increased military spending due to expenditures made after September 11 terror attacks and before the war with Afghanistan were also effective to help the U.S. economy recover from recessionary situation.

The studies exemplified in this section contained supporting evidence for efficiency of government spending during times of recession with the following general characteristics:

–               The studies have a Keynesian or pro-Keynesian approach to economy and income distribution. Social stability and equality of income distribution are essential for the researchers of these studies.

–               The studies generally cover periods along 1970 – 2001.

–               The studies also show that efficiency or inefficiency might not be directly related to government spending or private investments, which means that government spending is not to blame alone in cases of unsuccessful recovery attempts.

 

1.3.        Studies That Find Government Spending both Effective and Ineffective with Respect to Changing Conditions in Times of Recession

In addition to positive and negative approaches to the relationship between governments spending and growth during recession times, there are some studies that do not support both but have a relative approach. Effectiveness of fiscal policies including government spending and taxation policies could turn out to have stronger effects when market actors’ expectations of economical outcomes are more accurate.[21] Also, Corsetti, Meier and Muller (2009) have analyzed the global recession of 2008 – 2009 concentrating on the case of fiscal stimulus through an analysis that investigates cross-border spillovers. When they analyze a debt-financed government spending scenario under 2008 – 2009 global recession conditions, they see that such spending leads to higher future taxation, which adversely affects private spending. In time overall spending has a decreasing tendency.

Nevertheless, government spending stimulus could come out to be effective in the short-run during recessions according to the same research, while leading to positive cross-border spillover effects by affecting long-term interest rates. Short term stimulus policies supported by government spending could be effective when they are followed by medium term consolidation plans requiring some limits on spending. Additionally, government spending had limited effects when the economy is subject to global and or foreign effects. [22].From a similar point of view, Darby (1982) point out that has shown some evidential points that are related to reasons that lead to and out of recessions. Taking 1973 – 1974 recession as an example, Darby has shown that the outside price effects caused by oil price fluctuations led to the recession, where government spending or not spending would have had little recovery effects.

Also regarding the recent global economic recession that began in 2007, Hannsgen and Papadimitriou (2009) also offer new programs that could be supported by government spending as has been the case with the New Deal program in 1930s. Despite the mainstream critical analyses of the New Deal program, which put forth that it was not effective; the new global crisis requires economists to go through the positive and negative points embedded in this program.[23] New Deal was usually seen as a failure attempt including increased government expenditure to boost economic growth and recover from recession, for it was not until the eve of World War II for the U.S. economy to start to function efficiently. However, New Deal had positive outcomes with respect to regulatory and labor relations legislation, and government spending and taxation. However, they also approve that the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 was administered badly and the help provided by the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 was too late for a recovery. [24]

Slight recovery from the most recent recession – that initiated with subprime crisis – would also be costly for developed economies that cannot be viewed as simple crises to be solved through monetary or fiscal expansion policies.[25] European countries should combine their efforts to help each other in the European Union, so that the Union as well as its members can recover from recession more quickly and smoothly. This can be done through fiscal policies, including government spending. On the other hand, the largest economic power of the European Union, which is Germany, is reluctant to combine efforts to help recover Union members from such a recession.[26]

Kuttner and Posen (2001) have analyzed the state of Japanese government that is prone to recession and crises since the beginning of 1990s. They argue the effectiveness of Keynesian policies that bring increased government spending with at times of recession. It is difficult to suggest that Keynesian approach to stimulate the Japanese economy was successful or not. Despite the fact that government led policies to boost the economy were not effective on a continuous basis, increased government spending has had stimulating effect on Japan’s economy when applied through multiplier effects as had been proposed by Keynes before. There are cases that the policy was far less effective than expected, but this could be stemming from some other external factors. Nevertheless, Kuttner and Posen (2001) are neutral and neither approves nor rejects the usefulness of increased government spending to recover from recessions.

In a different approach regarding the effects of government spending, Lopez, Galinato, and Islam (2009) have gone through the effects of increased governmental spending during times of recession on air pollution. Just as the uncertain effects of the increased governmental spending on economies during recessionary times, Lopez, Galinato, and Islam (2009) have found that increased government spending had no clear positive or negative effects on environmental conditions and pollution.

There might be even cases that increased government spending leads to temporary recessions. This situation can take place when interest rates have aggregate supply-side effects prior to and during increased government spending periods. On the other hand, this relationship is usually less clear as the demand and supply effects of interest rates cannot be clearly analyzed through a consisted framework, which prevents a comparison of these effects. Government spending could be causes of recession through directly affecting market interest rates at times.[27]

Boosting economies through government spending at times of recession could give different results depending on the state and size of the economy that is in recession. An analysis of 56 countries as well as G-7 countries to understand the effects of taxation and government spending policies at times of expansion and recession concluded that government spending is usually down, while taxes are up during times of recession in developing countries, which is not the case for developed (G-7) countries.[28] Similarly, government spending usually increases and taxes go down during times of economic expansion in developing countries, which is just the opposite in G-7 countries. The difference between these two types of effects related to fiscal policies could be a result of the different tax bases in these countries highly volatile tax base in developing countries, compared to the developed economies. [29]

1. 3.         Conclusive Remarks

This review on the relationship between increased government spending and (recovery from) recession aimed to go through the pros and cons of government intervention in the economy through increased spending during times of recession. As is clear from the previous studies, there is no clear relationship between the two factors. There are times that increased government spending can be effective, and there are times that it cannot be deemed as effective. It seems that, success or failure of such a policy depends on a number of factors such as the state of the economy in depression (i.e. is it a developed or a developing economy), the efficiency of the use of the government spending (for infrastructure, for economy, for military reasons, etc.), and the state of external conditions (whether the recession is global, whether there are direct factors that lead to recession such as oil prices, etc.). Moreover, choice of government spending as a macroeconomic tool seems to be a political choice as well. If government chooses to increase its spending at times of recession, this means an intervention into economy. Such an interventionist policy might be useful for those supported by the government, while it might come out to be harmful for those not supported by the government; given the reality that government spending is a type of redistribution of income.

4.       Proposal for Econometric Model: The Effect of Government Expenditure on Growth

This proposal will attempt to provide an econometric investigation of the economic effects of government spending on countries’ growth performance. Such an analysis can be conducted in two ways. One way is to pick up a country and carry out a time series analysis. The obvious shortcoming of such an approach is that it will not produce a general conclusion because the results will be based on the dynamics of the particular country that is chosen for the analysis. However, the debate among macroeconomists about the effects of government expenditures on growth is not country specific. In general, while Keynesian economist tend to believe in the merits of fiscal policy, classical economists either emphasise the public authorities to influence economic performance or emphasize the destabilising effects of government intervention (e.g. crowding-out effect; see for example, Barro, 1991; Blanchard, 1993). Both schools defend their ideas on the basis of certain general economic theories which are in principal applicable to all market economies. Hence, rather than the time series analysis of a single country, a cross-sectional study of many countries will be adopted to examine the effects of government spending on growth. The sample of countries will be as large as possible depending on the availability of the data. It will include both high-income and low-income countries. The main objective will be to obtain a general result about the effect of government spending.

The problem with cross-sectional analysis that corresponds to the choice of a particular country in time series analysis is picking a specific year to perform the econometric test. Moreover, according to the neo-classical thesis, cross-sectional analysis cannot capture the destabilizing effects of government intervention, which takes some time to get hold. Yet, it can be argued that economic crises provide the perfect setting to test the effectiveness of government intervention. Notice that government interventions are often assessed in terms of two distinct influences. The first is the government’s impact on long-run growth. In other words, can government help to sustainable growth in the long-run. The second economic role assumed by government involvement is the counter-cyclical effect. For example, governments tend to resort to expansionary policies in case of recession.

The pro-government side of the debate (Keynesians) emphasises the key role public sector can play during recessions. In other words, the crux of the debate is whether governments should intervene to create economic stimulus in case of slowing economic activity. A similar debate arose during the recent global crisis that erupted in 2007-2008 in the financial systems of advanced capitalist economies (Economist, 2010). Thus this study will attempt to provide a cross-sectional examination of the effectiveness of expansionary fiscal policy during the recent global crisis in creating growth.

The method of ordinary least squares will be used to estimate the following cross-sectional model:

 

GROWTH = α + β₁ GOVSPEND + β₂ GOVINV + β₃ PRINV + β₄ OPEN + β₅ RINT

Where

GROWTH = the log change of the real growth rate.

GOVSPEND = the ratio of government consumption spending and transfers to GDP

GOVINV = the ratio of government investment spending to GDP

PRIINV = the ratio of private investment spending to GDP

OPEN = the ratio of exports plus imports of goods and services to GDP

RINT = real interest rate, estimated by the difference between the interest rates on government bonds and inflation rate measured by the consumer price index

 

The model distinguishes two types of government expenditures. GOVSPEND measures the total amount of non-investment expenditures (as a ratio of GDP) which includes consumption spending of the public sector as well as the transfer payments. GOVINV, on the other hand, measures total investment spending of the government at the local and central levels. The objective of introducing separate measures for government expenditure is distinguishing between two principal ways in which the treasury departments inject funds into the economy to foster growth.

Two key additions will be made to the model presented above. First, note that government spending and investment may have lagged effect on growth; that is, it takes some time until this influence becomes effective. Hence lagged values of government spending and private investment will be added to the model as explanatory variables depending on the availability of data as well as the explanatory power of these additions. Also, to take account of region-dependent effects on growth rates, dummy variables will be introduced as control variables. Regional dummies will be determined based on the analysis of the data. A dummy variable for each region with remarkable (positive or negative) growth performance will be added.

According to the Keynesian economists, both coefficients of government expenditures (β₁ and β₂) are expected to be positive. The size of the coefficients may indicate which form of government spending is more effective on growth. A classical economist, on the other hand, would argue that the coefficients should be either statistically not significant (i.e. government spending has no effect on growth) or negative (if, for example, increased government spending crowds-out private investment and thus lowers growth potential of the economy). The empirical results may indicate which approach is more powerful in explaining the effect of government intervention during the recent crisis.

There are three control variables in the model, each accounting for factors that are frequently discussed in the literature as being influential on growth. Private investment is expected to encourage increased levels of economic activity. For classical economists, it is the only sustainable way of growth. Keynesians, on the hand, argue that private investment will remain low during recessions; this is why the government needs to step in. Openness is expected to create a rise in GDP, especially under globalisation. However, note that openness may also limit and even reduce growth rates if the economy in question relies on export-led growth and there is a slowing world demand. Real interest rate is included in the regression equation to take account of the monetary policy. For example, central banks of all major economies, including the US, UK and Eurozone, lowered their lending rate as a response to recession. In others words, if monetary policy is effective the coefficient of RINT should be negative (i.e. higher interest rates causing low growth).

The cross-sectional model is adopted by the model used by Kelly (1997). Notice that the model in this study is constructed to test the short term effectiveness of government spending; hence, variables such as education spending, health expenditures are left out of Kelly’s model. Moreover, real interest rates are included to take account of monetary policy because in many countries expansionary fiscal and monetary policy have been implemented together to fight recession. The cross-section model will use the 2009 numbers. World Development Indicators (WDI) published by the World Bank will be used as the main data source.

The model will be also estimated separately for high-income (OECD) countries and low income countries to test if the level of income or development influences the effectiveness of government intervention. Also Chow test will be used to check if there is a structural break between those two types of countries with respect to fiscal policy effects.

            5.         Preliminary Analysis:

         5.1.         The Effect of Government Spending on Macroeconomic Variables

 

This part of the essay will discuss the effect of government spending on macroeconomic variables such as economic growth, unemployment and private investment. To evaluate the impact of government spending, the trends in forty European countries in 2008 period will be examined. Note that the global financial crisis was triggered by the outburst of the boom in the US housing market in the summer of 2007 and it quickly spread to the entire global financial system during the second half of 2007 and 2008.[30] Many European economies were severely affected by the crisis. As a result, the average annual growth rate of the countries in the sample declined by almost 60 percent from 4.81 to 2 percent. Table 1 presents the growth performance of the continent between 2005 and 2008. Note that the growth performance of the continent is largely improved by the countries in the East. For example, in 2008, the highest growth rate attained by a West European country belongs to Holland, which is below the average: only 1.71.

 

	Average Annual Change in Real GDP (%)
2005	4.26
2006	5.02
2007	4.81
2008	2.00

Table 1. Growth in Europe (2005-2008)

 

The following sections will present a brief descriptive analysis of the relationship between government spending and key macroeconomic variables including GDP growth, private sector investment, unemployment and inflation. The analysis will be based on scatter diagrams and correlation coefficients.

 

         5.2.         Government Expenditure and Growth

 

Figure 1

 

Figure 1 exhibits the correlation between government spending and economic growth in Europe during 2008. The scatter diagram seems to indicate a negative relationship. As the ratio of government spending in GDP rises, the growth performance seems to deteriorate. Correlation between two variables (estimated as -0.3138 verifies this indication) appears to verify this conclusion.

 

 

Figure 2

 

Figure 2 is drawn to have a better look at the cross sectional evidence between growth and government spending. The difference of Figure 2 is that it depicts the association between growth and the log change in government spending during 2009 (that is, from its 2008 value). In this diagram, the negative relationship is even more observable (World Development Indicators published by World Bank were used as the data source in this paper).

Note that correlation coefficient does not imply causality. Hence it cannot be concluded, by looking at the cross sectional evidence for 2008, government spending has adversely affected economic performance. For example, it might be the case that government spending is higher in troubled economies (low or negative growth) because governments in those countries had felt a more urgent need to step in.

To sum up, as for the relationship between growth and government spending, two different causalities can be maintained. According to the first, government spending may contribute or adversely affect economic growth. Pro-intervention Keynesian economists argue for the former; classical economists tend to the latter interpretation (Mankiw, 2002). Yet another interpretation is that the causality runs from growth to government spending, not the other way round. Accordingly, governments tend to increase their spending as a counter-cyclical tool in times of economic slowdown (i.e. when there is little or negative growth; Krugman, 2009); hence, there should be a negative correlation between two variables.

 

         5.3.         Government Expenditure and Private Investment

The so called “crowding-out effect” is the adverse effect of government spending on economic growth. Rising government spending tends to increase interest rates by creating excess demand for loanable funds; high interest rate discourages private investment.[31]

 

 

Figure 3

 

Figure 3 presents the scatter plot of government spending and private investment, both as a percentage of GDP, in forty European countries in 2008. Similar to the case of economic growth, investment seems to be inversely related to government spending. Low investment is associated with high government spending and vice versa. This observation is confirmed by the correlation coefficient (-0.282).

 

         5.5.         Government Expenditure and Inflation

The relationship between inflation (measured by the GDP deflator), and government spending is one of the fierce debates among economists. Anti-government classical economists (e.g. monetarists) argue that government spending is bound to cause inflation in the long-term.[32] A similar argument is made for the current crisis. Some economists raised their concerns about the inflation threat that may show up due to fiscal stimulus programs designed to fight the recession (Greenspan, 2009).

 

 

Figure 4

Figure 4 presents the scatter plot of government spending and inflation, measured by the GDP deflator. There does not seem to be a strong relationship between the two as indicated by the dots scattered around without a clear-cut trend. In other words, government spending does not seem to be associated with high rates of inflation. In fact, the correlation coefficient is slightly negative but its magnitude is close to zero: -0.139.

However, this result is maybe not surprising because it takes some time for the inflationary effects of government spending to be effective. Many economists agree that expansionary fiscal policy may generate inflation in the long-run.[33] To test this idea, the level of government spending of 2007 is compared with inflation of 2008, showed in Figure 5.

 

 

Figure 5

 

Again no relationship is observed. Again, the correlation coefficient is -0.059, indicating virtually no link between 2007 fiscal policy and 2008 inflation.

 

Regression Analysis

Using the regression function discussed above:

GROWTH = α + β₁ GOVSPEND + β₂ GOVINV + β₃ PRINV + β₄ OPEN + β₅ RINT , the following graph can be obtained

 

This shows that GDP increase lead to increase in per capita index which is an indication of increase in government spending has positive effect on the economic growth which is depicted by the increase in per capita index. Although, correlation analysis showed that there exists no clear relationship between the government spending and economic recovery, it is clear in this case, government spending is positively related to economic recovery since the line of the best fit slopes upward.

Conclusion

This work seeks to determine the effects of government spending on economic recovery growth in recessions. It consults various studies which were previously done by other scholars. It is evident that government spending is likely to have mixed effects to the economy. There is no clear indication that government spending is likely to lead to economic recovery from the recessions. The crowding effect of government spending also limits the effectiveness of government spending in ensuring economic recovery. Global economic conditions are also another key aspect that determines the success of government spending in recovering from the recession. A less relationship between the government spending was also noticed. Investment was also found to be inversely related to government spending. On the other hand, it cannot be ruled out that government spending has no positive effect on economic growth as shown by the regression graph.

Government spending cannot on its own be a sure way in ensuring economic recovery and growth from recession. It is only through combining both fiscal and monetary policies focus on empowering the private sector involvement in economic activities that economic recovery from recession may be achieved.

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To the Germans cars play a very central role in their lives.  This is so much so that German technology in the car industry is renowned world over of its workmanship and quality.  Through its history, German has experienced separation, the latest being after WWII when German was divide into East andWest Germany. Through this time, both sides had different dynamics of life.  They also experienced dissimilar economic progression with the west which took up capitalism experiencing much more rapid and robust economic growth as opposed to the east which took up socialism.

With this in mind right from the day of the separation, car manufacturers both local and international have had to apply two strategies when dealing with German market-one for the west and another for the east.  This could be explained by the cultural differences as a result of the post war period. It has been found that, consumerist practices in the east developed differently than in the west.  Additionally, this consumerist culture was not as clear-cut in the east as it was in the west.

Discussion:

Having established that culture is the way people do things, it is thus logical that when companies are looking to influence the purchase decision of people towards their products.  As such, culture will entail what has been learnt inline with religion, language, aesthetics, law and politics, technology and material culture, social organization, education and values and attitudes.

What has been found to be true over time is that in centrally planned economies like the one inEast Germany, consumers did develop different skill from consumers in market economies likeWest Germany.  In planned economies, the skills were in locating products-given the perennial shortage, while their counterparts in the market economy developed skills in comparing and deciding between products-abundance resulted in variety.  In deed inEast Germany, the products available were designed to satisfy the quantity component of consumer needs.

The cars in theEast Germanywere designed for intended to move population from one place to another. Comfort and safety features were not prioritized.  In West Germany, it did not matter that consumers could move from one point to another, the safety of car consumers and their comfort while using cars were decision that were considered critical and thus needed to be addressed before consumers could be offered products.  As such inWest Germany, consumers could choose from Mercedes, BMW, Audi and Volkswagen all of which are legendary for attention to detail in terms of comfort and safety. InEast Germany, this luxury on choice was very narrow.  On either owned a Trabant or any other brand coming fromEastern Europe– Wartburg or Lada.

Over time though the Germans were initially one nation, this division and the cultural adaptations to the prevailing conditions are still visible to-date.  With the unification of East andWest Germanyto one country, consumers in formerEast Germanyare not affected by marketing techniques used so successfully with a population with capitalist inclinations.  Instead they seem to have acquired a taste for the bland and not so glitzy marketing.  Similarly, products produced in the formerEast Germany, can not seem to find a foothold in the West (Hinck, Cortes & James, 2004).  In some cases despite rebranding, these products carry with them a certain perception in the west.  In the East however, the acceptability seems not to have been affected.  The marketing seems to be slowly realizing that not East German products were bland and that in fact, consumers brought up in the east have acquired a taste for these products and as such create a demand that can not be wished away or ignored.  The marketing industry has therefore been forced to focus on bringing reliable well-known products back to consumer’s choice basket.  Skoda cars are a case in point.

Another aspect that has gained prominence in trying to explain the cultural influence of the East and West Germans on marketing especially for cars is language.  Both Germans’ (East and West) shared a common language.  However due to the challenges of life in theEast Germany, people learnt to speak in riddles and with a lot of sarcasm.  This was necessitated by the desire to circumvent the oppressive regulations put in place to stifle freedom of expression.  This was unlike the west where this freedom was enshrined ad protected by the law.

As such the people ofWest Germanycould express themselves freely without the need of using code in their conversations.  This background defined the kind of strategy employed.  Despite the fact that the German language is not high in context culture verbal communication, in the East it did develop toward conformity with this.  In line with this, marketers have had to design campaigns with the high context culture in mind (Onkvist & Shaw, 2004).  This has entailed the use of campaigns with hidden meaning since consumers are already inclined to look for hidden meaning even where none exists.  Additionally, campaigns have had to use not only world but also the body language of the one passing on the message.

Religion has also found itself gaining prominence especially with regards with consumers from theEast Germany.  With the oppression that was part of the communism era, East Germans came to rely on religion to offer reprieve and solace from daily challenges.  To the West Germans, the freedom accorded to them ensured that though they enjoyed practicing their religion, they were not so religious.  Where as marketers could get away with concepts that were borderline provocative in the west this was not the case in the east.  As a result with the unification, marketers have had to tread the line between what is acceptable and what is outright provocative given the background of the consuming public (Lass & Hart, 2004).  It has become the responsibility of marketers to ensure their campaigns are not offensive, unlawful or distasteful to all the consuming population.  This is with regards to marketing and branding.  Marketers have not shied from using these positives to sell their products.

Between the East Germans and those from the West, there is a clear, distinct and discernable difference in the value and attitudes as espoused by the consumers (Martín-Santana & Beerli-Palacio, 2008).  Where as former West German consumers may be permissible to a lot and may even push the envelop in some instance, those from the East Germany are by nature more conservative with a highly developed and rigid value system coupled with attitudes to boot.  A lot of what is permissible in the west may be offensive in the East.  With this in mind, marketers have had to be very creative in their work.  They have endeavored and succeeded in making both consumers feel the campaigns are not only acceptable but also mind provoking and controversial to acceptable standards.  This has ensured the campaigns have achieved the result of creating awareness and most importantly sales.  Germans remain the highest consumers of German made cars.

Social organizations have also had their contribution on how marketers maneuvered while creating campaigns for different products.  In line with this,Germanyis a highly integrated and progressive society.  Women play a leading role and are no longer viewed as homemakers only but as partners in progress.  Currently,Germanyis lead by a woman who has her political roots in the formerEast Germany. Germanyis additionally a society that is very diverse with it opening its borders to immigrants to the extent that in the past decade, Germans with migrant background have slowly gained acceptance in the national football team.  It is with this in mind that marketers have had to redesign their campaign to ensure they not only use people with clear migrant background in the campaigns but also make sure the campaigns will be not only acceptable but also will excite and elicit purchase by the immigrant community (Waldeck & Von Gosen, 2007).  The challenge has been to design campaigns that bring out the diversity of the German people in addition to celebrating this diversity.

Germans both from the former East and West are frugal to a fault.  Unlike the Americans who have driven their economic growth through consumption, Germans have driven their economic growth through savings.  Germans are additionally known to have one of the most attractive social benefits.  The German social safety net is designed to make sure, the population does not suffer in their later years especially if they have faithfully and religiously contributed to the growth of the country economy (Ekerete, 2001).  German additionally has one of the best wage packages inEurope.  However despite this entire positive, the part of the country that was formallyEast Germanyhas been going through rough times.

With technological advancement and considering the former East Germany government and company’s were not so enthusiastic on keeping up, there has been an unfortunate fall in incomes and earning power in this regions (Hermeking, 2005).  Marketers have to put this into picture as they design their campaigns.  Given that they can not afford to price discriminate or segment, they thus need to create campaign that are very innovative and personalized in offering solutions that will strike the right cord with the intended and targeted consumer population.

Conclusion:

When all is said and done, marketers must be aware that former East and West German consumers display clearly distinct and unique consumption habits and respond differently to stimuli (Aaker & Briley, 2005).  Former West German consumers will be exhibit tendencies towards heightened product perception as opposed to the brother from the former East who will be more fuzzy-basic perceptual dimension will be the same.  Former East Germans because of the conditions that prevailed in the country will be having more individualistic values.  Their brother on the other hand will get to the value more quickly when analyzing a product for its concrete product attributes.  They will also tend to start with the more abstract attributes before tackling the specific which is the opposite with their brothers from the formerEast Germany.

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A major assumption that does exist in an effectual psychotherapy and counseling is that we always acknowledge the basic tendencies by understanding other people’s culture. It is imperative that we get to understand our cultural heritage as well as the global view before we decide to assist and understand other people. As counselors we should also learn to have a good relationship with groups or clients (Stacey & Dennis, 2000, pp. 483). It is important as a counselor to integrate some imperative factors in order to become a competent counselor as far as the culture is concerned. I am from a Hispanic decent and my parents come from the Dominion republic though I was born and raised inQueens,New York. It is therefore crucial to get an immense limelight on the multicultural knowledge, awareness and skills as well as discussing some factors that competent group counselor should embark on in their field of profession.

Corey et al (2010) has talked at length on multicultural awareness, skills and knowledge. They have come up with some questions to help understand more on this topic (Corey, 2010, pp. 22-25):

The Multicultural Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills Survey (MAKSS).

Multicultural awareness

1. Disagree
2. Very aware
3. Very aware
4. Agree
5. Good
6. Strongly agree
7. Agree
8. Agree
9. Strongly agree
10. Strongly agree

Multicultural Knowledge

11. Good
12. Good
13. Good
14. Good
15. Good
16. Good
17. Good
18. Disagree
19. Agree
20. Agree

Multicultural skills

21. Good
22. Good
23. Good
24. Good
25. Good
26. Good
27. Good
28. Good
29. Good
30. Very good

Group workers ought to be culturally competent (Anderson’s, 2007, pp. 230,). Counselors should embrace a more multicultural approach in their work. Competent counselors should understand the human behavior on the grounds of diversity and cultures (American counseling Association, 1991). Counselors should not permit the forces that exist in the group processes to cause injury or harm to the client (Anderson’s, 2007, pp. 231). They should also facilitate and enhance the growth characteristics and block all processes that can violate the groups. Moreover, group workers should be aware of the wealth, status and power that might result to victimization and oppression in group dynamics.

As a competent group counselor, I will first establish a mutual and a solid relationship with the group members. I will integrate my values, qualities and experiences to each group in order to bring a positive change. I will be courageous by willing to be vulnerable when necessary and admit imperfections and mistakes. I will hence examine my entire life and be honest and direct with the members in a respectful and caring way despite their cultural orientation. I will be completely aware with the subtle cultural concepts of the group members and identify with their concerns and pain.

To become a culturally competent leader one should consider the cultural, ethnic and other beliefs of the clients in order to handle them from the known and be able to address their concerns and worries. Multicultural counselor should take a more integrative approach. It is imperative to take a self examination and integrate our behavior, cognition on racial grounds in order to be competent.

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Abuse and domestic violence usually happens to all people though this problem is usually denied, overlooked and excused. This is true when the violence and abuse is psychological. Emotional abuse though it is minimized, it would leave immense and lasting scars. Noticing as well as acknowledging any symptoms and warning signs of abuse are the major step to ending the violence. Violence and abuse do not discriminate and it does happen to all people irrespective of their ages, economic levels or ethnic background. Abuse usually escalates from verbal abuse, threats to acts of violence. Though physical injury might be an obvious danger, the psychological and emotional impacts of violence are quite severe. It is therefore imperative to embark on child abuse and its impact on health.

Interpersonal violence and abuse is a global phenomenon and nurses should seek ways into which to integrate cultural competence in order to help them to understand relationships between interpersonal violence and culture (Zoucha, 2006, pp. 195-6). Child abuse has an impact on children depending on various factors. One of them is the extent of the physical abuse, second is the frequency of the abuse, third is the age factor of the child, and fourth is the relationship that the child has with the abuser, fifth is how available the children are to get help and finally the ability of the children to cope with the abuse.

 

Child is any person who is younger than 18 years. Child abuse is any nonaccidental injury as well as any act of omission by the parent’s guardian, caretakers that result to imminent risks of harm or risks of impaired health, death and others. There are numerous types of abuse that children go through. They undergo physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional abuse and neglect and sexual abuse. Children who suffer from abuse develop ranges of maladaptive, self destructive actions, anti social behaviors and thoughts as they try to cope with the entire trauma.

Child abuse has immense effects on children. It causes children to have academic difficulties, result to taking of drugs and alcohols, being aggressive, have nightmares, bed wet, chronic pains, depression, eating disorders, insomnia, malnutrition, stomachaches and headaches and even suicide attempts (Arthur, 2005). Children who are abused sexually are also at very high risks of developing anxiety, personality and mental disorders (Philip, David & Simon, 2004, pp. 416-421).

Adult women who have a history of child abuse usually portray great evidence when it comes to dysfunction as well as sexual disturbances and may suffer from depression (Joseph, Kenneth, Jane, Granville, Donna, 1992, pp. 101-118). Fear, anxiety and suicidal acts have always been associated with sexual abuse.

Physical child abuse also ranges from lacerations and minor bruises to severe trauma and at times even death. The worst part is that child abuse can end up extending to adulthood. Some of the effects of physical abuse on children are physical complaints. Children end up having migraines, stomachaches, gut catastrophes and other physical symptoms that are not necessarily caused by the trauma. These are usually psychomatic indicators. Abused children usually feel hopeless, exhausted and sick often. Anger that is usually inward usually result to depression.  Since most of these children do not get help, they are prone to suffer in their late ages and end up abusing alcohol and drugs. Anger that is not usually expressed in the right way usually leaks to other problems. Children end up having aggressive or passive behavior. Abused children usually revenge indirectly and end up being hostile and cynic.

The abused children usually have no social life are bound to be rejected or have problems in relationships. These children always develop low esteem and profound sadness. According the American Department of Health and Human Services, rate of children abuse was 12.4 in the year 2003 and neglect represented the highest type of abuse. In US there is a system that has been established in order to respond to some reports on neglect and child abuse. Nurses should integrate the cultural factors in their profession in order to understand the needs of children who have been abused as well as the factors that result to a culture behaving the way they do. Any cases of child abuse should be addressed and reported and those children should be offered the right counseling to avoid future problems and health issues.

Abuse and violence on children have been common to most societies and most of the families do it as a form of punishment to their children. These children are bound to be adversely affected health wise and they end up suffering physically, mentally and emotionally. They ought to be offered with the right counseling in order to avoid future problems. Children who are abused are prone to be depressed, affect their future relationships and might end up dying due to health issues. Culture should be integrated in the health system to cater for this kind of abuse and children should be given counseling and advised on types of abuse in order to report such cases.

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There are numerous uncertainties in the world today. On the other hand, trust among humanity even on what appears to be relatively obvious seems as elusive. Whatever the circumstance, it is tidal that the any landowner, young or old writes some note or assigns or prepares some tentative will for his estate (Texas Young Lawyers Association). The written document would take a number of forms, but most importantly, it confers estate management mandate to some trusted person(s) or legal entity.

            At the very onset one needs to appreciate that there is a difference between DURABLE POWER OF ATTORNEY and GENERAL POWER OF ATTORNEY. DURABLE POWER OF THE ATTORNEY lives beyond the period for which it was meant. While the GENERAL POWER OF ATTORNEY only grants powers to the nominee for specific period of time.

In the event of death, and where the owner of the estate has not left an elaborate will, the descendants seem to be entangled in disagreement over the inheritance of the estate and the property (Cavazos T S., 2002). In most cases the owner normally identifies a trusted member of the family who would act as an administrator in the event of any eventuality.

When one feels that he may be away for some time and there are very important transactions that he may need attended to, he may choose someone to handle the transactions through the preparation of financial POWER OF ATTORNEY (POA). In the case where such financial POA has to be prepared by somebody who feels that he may be incapacitated, one may opt to entrust the management to one of the family members (Dying Without A Will). The family member would only make very important decisions when two doctors verify that the owner is indeed incapacitated.

            Legally, the POWER OF ATTORNEY (POA) is kept together with the medication documents. However, it needs to be appreciated that the POWER OF ATTORNEY is prepared on two accounts. Thus, in the event of probable hospital incapacity and in the event that the owner wishes to have transactions transacted while he/she is away (Texas Young Lawyers Association).

Consequently, for effective sharing of the inheritance the POA has to be the ‘DURABLE’ one. This document ensures that whoever is put in charge of the estate manages it beyond sickness or absence. In case of absence that is not related to sickness, if the owner is befallen by some calamity, the durable POA allows the nominated individual to clear the transactions and hands the transactions papers to the descendants.

            If a will is not available, the court may designate anyone to take over the guardianship of the estate and the minor children alike. However, the guardianship may not be as required by the land or property owner. In addition, if anyone passes away without any written will, the estate is subjected to a number of costs (Texas Young Lawyers Association). These costs may be in terms of court fees and fees for the attorney and costs arising from any errors. This may lead to the liquidation of some of the assets so as to meet the costs. Subsequently, whatever is meant for disbursement to the descendant is reduced.

Intestacy laws differ from state to state, in the event that the land owner has land in another state and dies without a will, the laws of the state where the land is located are used in deciding on the inheritance of the land (Cavazos T S., 2002). However, more often, land owners have special feeling to family members, and could express this feeling through the written will by giving them some preference. Dying without a will implies that the property is shared among the heirs indiscriminately without bothering about your feelings to certain family members.

Landowners may have a heart to assist the poor who may not necessarily be members of the family (Dying Without A Will). Such wishes would only be made effective where there is a will that is left. Or else the property would simply be taken by distant relations of even the state where such distant relations as the father, grandfather, sibling or even grand children are none existent. It is vivid from the foregoing discussion that at all points, land and property owners should develop some written document offering guidance on the inheritance of their estate.

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Introduction

The world today has seen tremendous increase in the levels of urban centers. The urbanization prospects have not been coupled with similar counteracting measures in terms of housing and pollution control. Though this is a precursor to and an indicator of economic development, it comes with mixed blessings and in the very earnest terms is a blessing that is much disguised.

Urbanization, a Mixed Blessing

Urbanization is one of the complex processes where the communities of any state become large, specialized and relatively more interdependent. Urbanization is a result of many processes. However, the most important and notable variable in the urbanization process are technological, economical, environmental, political and demographic. The interaction of these salient factors translates to urbanization.

Countries with very high rates of industrialization seem to be experiencing high rate of urbanization. Towns have been growing at high rates particularly where industries have been established on their outskirts. Clearly, industrialization will trigger urbanization. When industries are established, estates are developed to cater for the shelter needs of the employees in the industries and proprietors alike. In addition, those who work in the industries need to be provided with other services hence prompting the development of shopping centers. Over time this suburbs become part of the town and increase the level of the urban centers.

When the economy of any state is on a positive track, the proceeds from the investments are reinvested in other ventures. The venture has to acquire its employees who need to be sheltered. In the process of providing the employees with shelter and other important services town centers start sprouting up.  Overall, the economy grows resulting from the increased economic activities. Entrepreneurs make profits and use them to improve their living standards while the employees equally use the proceeds from their labor to invest in other ventures that would earn returns.

Though it is appreciated that urbanization may bring about investment and improvement in the standards of living, industrialization which is a precursor of urbanization brings with it environmental pollutions. Besides, urban centers come with increase in social evil. Crimes tend to escalate in urban centers. In addition, the concentration of the wider population in the urban areas normally leads to unprecedented inequalities. The urban population gets richer while the rural population seems to be getting poorer by the day.

The plotted graphs clearly show that the high the level of urbanization the high the level of pollution. The pollution may be in the forms of noise, dust, smoke and industrial wastes. In addition, the congestion brought about by urbanization contributes to the spread of diseases.Canada’s urbanization has followed the same trends as its economic development trend. In any country, increase in the economic development seems to largely support the development of urban centers.

As at 1996, when census was done inCanada, an estimated 78% of the Canadian population was living in urban centers.Canadais ranked amongst the fastest industrializing countries in the world. Of particular interest in the class arePakistan,Belgium,Australia,United KingdomandIsrael. However,Canadaexhibits an exceptional urbanization trend.  Most of the provinces inCanadathat are experiencing high levels of urbanization have high levels of economic development with controlled pollution levels.

The data presented shows that middle level economies may experience the highest levels of urbanization in the 21^st century. With the ever-increasing population in the middle level economies, it is most likely that unemployment in the rural area will increase while the resources available may not increase at similar rates precipitating the movement of the unemployed into the cities. Consequently, urban centers will grow at high rates.

Continued urbanization will present numerous challenges. Most importantly, the urbanization process will lead to congestion. The congestion will prompt the increase in the cost of living in the urban centers. Because of the disparities in the costs of giving and the incomes of the urban dwellers, it is most likely that crime will start increasing with the jobless trying to make ends meet.

The increase in the urban population would equally lead to the drop in the wage bills arising from the increase in the supply of the labor force. Subsequently, the living standards of the urban dwellers will drop. There will be a large gap between the lower class urban dwellers and the upper class urban dwellers. These inequalities will be precipitated leading to the general national inequality.

Housing will be a major challenge that will be precipitated by rapid migration into the urban centers. While the urban population will be increasing, the development of the housing infrastructure may not be at the same rate. This will translate to a housing crisis in the urban center. In the quest towards bridging the gap to the housing challenge, poor housing estates will be developed or the very worst, slums will become a norm.

Conclusion

The entire globe should welcome urbanization given that with the rapid industrialization the trend is inevitable.  Nevertheless, measures should be taken to ensure that the blessings do not become disguised. If the trend has no countering measures, evil will become abound besides the human races being endangered through pollution that is brought about by industrialization and urbanization that are clearly inseparable.

a) Figure 1

 

Figure 2

b) Figure 3

 

 

 b) Figure 4

c) Figure 5

 

 

c) Figure 6

c) Figure 7

 

Figure 8

Figure 9

 

 

Figure 10

 

List of Countries Order in Which They Were Graphed

Argentina                   Benin                          Bolivia                        Botswana

Brazil                           Canada                        china                           Colombia

Finland                        france                          germany                      Ghana

Iceland                                    Israel                           Kenya                          Korea Rep.

Lebanon                     Libya                          Netherlands                Norway

Pakistan                      Paraguay                    South Africa             Sweden

Switzerland                Tanzania                     Turkey                        Ukraine

United Arab Emirates United Kingdom         Vietnam                      Yemen

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This article is about the U.S.A G.D.P figures growth. The author asserts that U.S.A economy expanded in the third quarter of fiscal year 2009 after recovering from the Global Financial Crisis. According to this article increase in GDP was due to increase in government spending (G). The government spending emphasized in promoting spending on cars and house buildings. The article also asserts that manufacturing output and consumer spending has increased and thus having a positive impact on GDP. The private residential investment accounted for half of the GDP growth. The author also notes that companies had reduced their inventories due to decrease in consumer demand which contributed to nearly a full percentage point of growth. This was a bit tricky in accounting for GDP. The article also notes that government spending had also resulted into increase in inflation rate. However, the U.S.A government was in the process of bringing this down by employing monetary policies such as adjusting the interest rates.

 

Components of GDP discussed in the article

This article has discussed three components of G.D.P and their effects on G.D.P figure.  These are: government spending, (G) the consumptions by the household (C) and investments (I). Much of GDP growth in U.S.A for 2009 third quarter is attributed to increase in government spending. The other component of G.D.P discussed is the output from manufacturing sector which is included as part of GDP when using output approach to calculating G.D.P. The government spending increase also propelled consumptions and investment in this economy which both culminated to G.D.P growth. The government spending was aimed at making loans available to those who wanted to invest in residential buildings. The spending was also aimed at enabling households spending in cars. The author also notes that consumer demand on available goods had decreased and forced the business entities to reduce their inventories.

 

I agree with the writers claims that government spending has a big impact on other components of GDP borrowing from Keynesian model of national income, GDP=G+C+I+(X-M), where G represent government spending, C represent consumption by the households, I represent investments, X represents exports while M represents imports. Any increase in government spending will increase the G.D.P. Part of the government spending will also end to propel investments and household consumptions which is likely to increase the GDP further. In this case, increase of U.S.A government spending enabled investors and the households to access loans for building residential buildings and purchase cars respectively. (Wessels 2006; Shone, R (2001).

However such loans should not be included as part of G.D.P since it will culminate into double counting as this will be covered as part of government spending while calculating the GDP. The author note that a decrease in inventory may be tricky in calculating the G.D.P. Reduction in inventories will depict that there has been an increase in business income. However inventories may be part of intermediate goods used in production of the final goods. Such calculation may culminate into double counting and lead to a misleading G.D.P figures. Therefore, authors concern that inventories calculation in G.D.P figures is tricky has weight. This figure should be deducted from the GDP. The GDP calculated through output approach should only consider the finished products value produced in an economy in the specified period under consideration. (Colander 2003; Wessels 2006).