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Weighing the Evidence

This chapter focuses on the different types of systematic reviews. The chapter discusses the advantages of this type of analysis and the steps for conducting a meta-analysis or metasynthesis.

Dingle, P. (2011). Statin statistics: Lies and deception. Positive Health, 180, 1.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

In this article, the author outlines how misleading statistics are used to make false claims about the positive use of statin drugs in order to retain a market share of sales for pharmaceutical firms.
Katapodi, M. C., & Northouse, L. L. (2011). Comparative effectiveness research: Using systematic reviews and meta-analyses to synthesize empirical evidence. Research & Theory for Nursing Practice, 25(3), 191–209.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

The authors of this article assert that more comparative effectiveness research (CER) is necessary to accommodate the elevated demand for evidence-based health care practices. The article supplies a summary of methodological issues relevant to systematic reviews and meta-analyses used in the process of CER.
Stichler, J. F. (2010). Evaluating the evidence in evidence-based design. Journal of Nursing Administration, 40(9), 348–351.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

The quality of evidence used in EBP can vary considerably. This article highlights the necessity of critically appraising facility design research articles and using a hierarchical model to rate the strength of evidence.
Bernd, R., du Prel, J.-B., & Blettner, M. (2009). Study design in medical research: Part 2 of a series on the evaluation of scientific publications. Deutsches Aerzteblatt International, 106(11), 184–189. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695375/pdf/Dtsch_Arztebl_Int-106-0184.pdf

This article provides guidance in evaluating the study design of scientific publications for reliability and credibility. The authors suggest that the most important elements to consider are the question to be answered, the study population, the unit of analysis, the type of study, the measuring technique, and the calculation of sample size.
Walden University. (n.d.a). Paper templates. Retrieved July 23, 2012, from http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm (for review)

This website provides you access to the School of Nursing Sample Paper, which will serve as a template for formatting your papers.
Media
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2012g). Hierarchy of evidence pyramid. Baltimore, MD: Author. (for review)

This multimedia piece explains the hierarchy of evidence pyramid. The piece offers definitions and key information for each level of the pyramid.
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2012n). Weighing the evidence. Baltimore, MD: Author.

In this video, Dr. Kristen Mauk provides insight about how she analyzed her data and interpreted meanings of what the data showed. She describes how she drew conclusions based on the results and how she explained unexpected findings that were contrary to her initial hypotheses.

QUESTION:

Weighing the Evidence

When conducting original research, the final step researchers must complete is weighing the evidence and interpreting the meanings of their data, statistics, and analyses. This is the culmination of the research process in which all of the research methods and designs can be synthesized into a meaningful conclusion. In this stage, researchers should formulate explanations for what their data indicates, determine whether the data answers their initial research question, identify areas of uncertainty, and consider directions for further research.
In this Discussion, you focus on one of the research articles that you identified for Part 2 of the Course Project (Literature Review). You then explore the process of how the researchers generated conclusions based on their data, consider other possible interpretations of their data, and formulate ideas for further research.
To prepare:

Review this week’s Learning Resources, focusing on how researchers find meaning in their data and generate sound conclusions. Pay particular attention to Table 2 in the article, “Study Design in Medical Research.”
Revisit the 5 articles that you identified in Part 2 of the Course Project. Select one to consider for the purpose of this Discussion.
Read sections of the chosen article where the data is presented, analyzed, and interpreted for meaning. What reasoning process did the researchers use to formulate their conclusions? What explanation did they give to support their conclusions? Were there any weaknesses in their analysis or conclusions?

Consider possible alternate conclusions that the researchers could have drawn based on their data.
Examine the findings that the article presents and consider how well they addressed the researcher’s initial question(s). What additional research could be done to build on these findings and gain a fuller understanding of the question?

Post on or before Day 3 an APA citation and brief summary of the research article that you selected. Describe the data and the results of any statistical tests or analyses presented in the article. Explain how the researchers formulated their conclusion, any weaknesses in their analysis or conclusions, and offer at least one alternate interpretation of their data. Propose at least one additional research study that could be done to further investigate this research topic.

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Data Analysis

Readings

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
This chapter introduces descriptive statistics, which, as the name implies, describe characteristics of the data. There is an overview of the different levels of measurement—nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio—and how they are used. The chapter also defines frequency distributions and distinguishes between univariate and bivariate descriptive statistics.
Chapter 17, “Inferential Statistics”

This chapter focuses on inferential statistics, which are based on the laws of probability. It introduces sampling distributions, estimates of parameters, and levels of significance. In addition, the chapter provides an overview of some of the most commonly used inferential statistical tests, including t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and chi-square tests. Finally, the process of testing correlations is examined.
Chapter 18, “Multivariate Statistics”

In this chapter, the focus shifts to multivariate statistics. These are often used when the data analysis involves three or more variables. The multivariate tests described include simple linear regression, multiple linear regression, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), causal modeling, and event history analysis.
Chapter 19, “Processes of Quantitative Data Analysis and Interpretation”

The previous chapters have described a number of different statistical tests used to examine data in a quantitative study; this chapter focuses on how to analyze and interpret the results. It describes the steps in the analysis process and how to determine the credibility of the results.
Chapter 23, “Qualitative Data Analysis”

The focus of this chapter is qualitative data analysis, which is more difficult in some ways than quantitative analysis, because there are not specific tests that can be used. Instead, much of the analysis is based on the researcher’s ability to identify patterns of behavior or similarities in events. Suggestions are provided for analysis of each of the major types of qualitative studies and how to document findings.

QUESTION:

As a nurse engaged in evidence-based practice, it is important to recognize how statistics and other data analysis tools are used to generate and assess evidence. Most nurses need only a foundational understanding of statistical tools and terminology to understand the majority of research studies. As a nurse, you should be able to recognize the most commonly used statistical tests, how and when they are used, and how significance is determined.

In this Discussion,examine different types of statistics and statistical tests, when and why these particular tests would be selected for use, and, most importantly, what the results indicate. To this end, you will be assigned to a group by Day 1 of this week. Each group will be assigned one of the five chapters listed in this week’s Learning Resources and will develop a study sheet on their chapter that will be shared with the other groups.
To prepare:

Review the information in assigned chapter.

Develop a 1-page study sheet that includes the following:

The key concepts of the chapter: Focus on the basic concepts that are important for nurses to understand as they review research studies.
A description of the statistical methods covered in the chapter, what they measure, and under what circumstances they are used. Identify examples of how the statistical methods have been used in research studies.
An explanation of the key statistical tests and how they measure significance .

Discuss why it is important for nurses to understand the basics of these statistical methods.

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57
Modern Times (1936, dir. Charlie Chaplin)

Consider one of the following questions as a starting point for an essay. Note that within a given question there will often be a series of related questions. a job will to address as effectively as possible all the related questions.

1.The movie opens with this title superimposed over a clock face: "’Modern Times.’ A story of industry, of individual enterprise-humanity crusading in the pursuit of happiness." How seriously does Chaplin’s film take these words? What prevents people in the film from being happy? Does the Tramp find happiness? In what form?

2.Granted that the film was made during the Great Depression of the 1930s and reflects that time, which scenes in the film relate to our own "modern times”? Is Chaplin’s film a political or social critique of American life?, what scenes in particular are critical of the American Way or what is often refer to as The American Dream?
3.Modern Times is full of images of huge carnivorous machines, conveyor belts, gears, dials and switches. The factory is automated. The Tramp tries out an automatic feeding machine with disastrous but hilarious results. What does the film say about the way machines rule our lives? Does the film invites to view the giant, man-eating machines as symbolic? If so, of what?

4.Food is another recurring image in Modern Times. In the Gamine’s (the word means "street urchin," a homeless child) first appearance, we see her stealing food. In a journal, make a list of how food is represented in the film. Is it significant that the Tramp gets “eaten” by the giant carnivorous gears of the factory? How do you account for this emphasis on eating? How does food relate to the film’s central theme?

5.Not everyone suffers equally in the film’s depiction of life during the height of the Great Depression. What scenes in Modern Times reveal class differences? Does the film make a distinction between the "haves" and the "have-nots"? How do the two main characters cope with their low status? What does the film say about social outcasts or people who live on society’s margins?

6.At the end of the film, after the homeless, jobless Tramp and Gamine have spent the night outside by the side of a road, the Gamine says to the Tramp, "What’s the use of trying?" and responds with, "Buck up–never say die. We’ll get along." What significance do you attach to their last words? How has the Tramp shown in the movie that "getting along" is a rule he lives by? Is the Tramp’s upbeat attitude enough to survive in the world of Modern Times? The film ends with smiles…but are these realistic, given that the two main characters are not only jobless but also homeless?

7.Explain how director Chaplin manages to blend comedy with his serious social message. The film is, after all, meant to be funny and make audiences laugh. But is comedy the best way to get across a “serious social message”? Would a drama about an unemployed worker or a homeless man and woman, or, say, about exploitation in the workplace be more effective in driving the point home that the American Dream is in trouble?

8.Chaplin’s film came out in 1936 during the worst days of the Great Depression. Does his film have any relevance to our own "modern times"? Cite parallels between several key scenes in the film with social problems that still plague us today.

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