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Is burning the American flag protected symbolic expression? Include in your discussion: Street. New York(1969); Spence. Washington(1974); Texas. Johnson(1989)

 

Over the years, anger has been expressed in a number of ways. Americans have some times expressed their dissatisfaction through the burning of the American flag. While the flag has been a respected symbol of nations, this gesture has raised numerous concerns inclusive of suites in courts to give legal counsel on the matter.

In the case of Spence v Washington, a Seattle resident was prosecuted for the misuse of the American flag. In the case the resident was charged with hanging the flag in the window with a peace symbol on it. In his defense, Spence argues that the gesture was unrelated to the any speech suppression.

This issue remains unresolved with American expressing their dissatisfaction with the government through burning of the American flag. Ideally the over-protection of the flag meant the protection of the interests of some of the members of government. This is in accordance with the conviction of Spence.

The conflict over the burning of the American flag persisted for years without resolve. However through the Texas vs. Johnson suite, the issue was resolved. According to the suite which found the gesture of burning the flag as shear expression of speech, the court ruled against such demonstrations. This landmark ruling was crowned through the passing of the flag protection act of 1989.

In the case of street vs. New York, it emerged that was at stake was the constitutionality of the ban on burning the flag. It was in question whether burning the flag was in contempt of respect for this American national symbol. This was evidenced in the differences in opinion by the different Justices. Ideally the Justices seemed at crossroads over the main issue at stake; the constitutionality of the ban. Justices Warren’s concern brings to the fore this issue, castigating others over the misplacement of the right arguments.

Indeed, the main concern raised through the suites is the constitutionality of the ban and subsequently the freedom of speech inherent with the American constitution. One fact comes out to the fore, the defining of constitutionality is very critical in the determination of legalities within specific spheres.

 

Compare and contrast the majority and minority opinions in Boy Scouts of Americav. Dale,(2000). Select three issues raised in the opinions and specifically compare them. For example the Scout Oath and Law is viewed quite differently by the majority and minority. Are the Boy Scouts a private or public organization? What is expressive association?

 

The boy scouts is a public organization and is not intended to make any profits from its dealings. Further, the boy scouts are expected to instill values that are positive within the majority of societies believes. The Boy Scout holds morals as a key component of the association and any deviation from such leads to banishment from the association. Perhaps the definition of the morality is what remains constitutionally defined.

In the case of the Boy Scout of America vs. Dale, it emerges that force is not part of the moral standards that are expected within the association. Subsequent, forcing Dale to be a Boy Scout assistant was inconsistent with the values of the Boy Scout association. While some of the states in the US accept homosexuality, the Boy Scout laws find it as inconsistent with its provisions.

What seems within these suites as at cross roads is the fact that expressive activity seemed to be unclearly defined. Protection of members should not be done just because they are members protected is raping the provisions of the first amendment. The amendment only provides protection in cases where the activities undertaken are impaired.

Ideally the tenets of scouting can not allow the scouts to engage in what can impair them. This is where the opinion of the majority versus the minority clash. While not all the scouts ascribe to these tenets, the second amendment does not allow them to have such values. Ideally, this represents a case of suppressing freedoms.

Though the court found it sufficient tat the boy scouts were talking requisite steps to follow the laid down standards. The taking of the official positions was indeed in line with the stipulated rules; nevertheless, this was in contravention of the freedom of expression. The existence openly of gay activist amongst the assistant Scoutmaster’s seemed to send distinctly disagreeing opinions among the staff. Altogether the court wanted to demonstrate that there was the need to have considered the aspirations of the minority even where democratic ideals calls for consideration of the needs of the majority.

What was the understanding of Framers of the Constitution in protecting free speech? How does this square with the Alien and Sedition Act passed in 1798? (7 years after the Constitution was ratified)

The principle of free movement forbids the American government from forcing people to reject a widely held opinion. This tends to create protection from those who make blunder and pathologies. Ideally the freedom of expressing oneself does diminish the gap that exists between the nation’s citizens and the leaders, and subsequently the monitoring of the later by the former.

James Madison finds fault in the provisions of the second amendment. It is based on this that Madison does object to the concept of the sedition act. Within the provision of this act, individuals who would criticize the officials of government would be victimized. Ultimately, and according to Madison, this was a curtailment of the freedom of speech. He argued that electing officials in government meant making them responsible to the citizens.

            The principle of free speech does require that the government of the day doesn’t censor the speeches that it does disapprove. While the government will want to impose penalties for such, these penalties are ideally unacceptable. The developers of the American constitution have had discontent over the efficacy of the some of the provisions that have been termed as protecting the interests of the commoners. Ideally some of the provisions that prohibit and curtail free speech are meant to protect the government elites from criticism on issues that affect the public.

 The framers of the American constitution inherently referred to herein as framers are amongst other Madison, Jefferson Franklin and Hamilton. Their intent was to protect all Americans, the common man and the political elite alike. In democratic societies, government would not point to the risks that would be bought about by free speech, rather the government should have legislation that are both free and fair to all the citizens.

If the government should restrict speech according to the framers of the American constitution, then it should show sufficient course why. Speech has over the years been used to persuade, arguing that speech will convince citizens against government is therefore a misplaced argument. Ideally the restriction of speech should be accompanied by transcend lawlessness and the fears that the speech should arise. Nevertheless the ultimate consensus is that whatever is said by citizens should have basis and should not be in contravention of other people’s rights and privileges.

Freedom of the Press

World over, the freedom of the press has been at crossroads. While the press has been argued as the custodian of the interests of the majority and the minority, it appears apparent that the leaderships with bad motives will never have support for this important institution of the society. Without the press perhaps most of the evils in society would remain under cover.

The issuance of publication bans is therefore a retardant act and should be discouraged. Whereas this is advocated the there should be a balance with the constitutionally protected rights. Because bans on certain publication seem to certain the freedoms of the press, the publication should be required be responsibly done. The inherent implication here is that the any publication should have sufficient prove and substantiation in any court of law.

If the courts are to make such decision relating to the issuing bans, then the basis should be constitutional and fair in consideration. Depending on the situation the perspectives that exist on closing off through courts through publication bans is meant to frustrate the accused and has the least basis in the American constitution. Nevertheless, because the court has the responsibility of making the ruling it is incumbent upon it to have some sufficient facts on which to base the judgment. Or-else, the blanket curtailment of the press would mean the practice of unfair trial which the constitution doesn’t provide room for.

Prior Restraint

This is the deliberate attempt to ensure that certain publications are not made. Constitutionally, this is the illegal restraint on the speech or the press’ freedom. While this has been transcend from the argument against libel, obvious untruth and slander, provided the publisher can offer basis for the publication this restraint is unconstitutional and unwarranted. Either way, the courts have the responsibility of protecting the Americans from defamation and slander and acts that would otherwise lead to racial, diatribes and such acts as religious epithets.

Sedition

The freedom of expression has been highly upheld by the American government and judicial system. Nevertheless, any insurrection to any lawful authority and such acts as incitement to resist such lawful authority should be discouraged. This constitutes sedition. In fronting for the protection of these rights the citizens should not misuse the same legal provision illegally.

Actual Malice

There are cases where persons will publish information while they are fully aware that the information is false and has the capability of defaming the subject(s). This is particularly when the information being published is false and has no legal and constitutional basis at all. The acting without any regard for the subject is equated to Actual Malice too. At time publishers will give information without any regard to the truth thereto the statement issued. This would be resultant to acting without the due regard to the set publication standards or shear arrogance. This is indeed unconstitutional and has the least to do with the exercise of the freedoms provided thereto.

Libel

Though the press has constitutional mandate of making publications, publishing through television, radio or print media information that is not true and that will harm the character of the subjects is unconstitutional and amounts to libel. Ideally libel constitutes the written form of defamation. Unlike slander and defamation libel has to do with printed matter and it does damage the character of the subject.

 

What was the understanding of the Framers of the Constitution in protecting freedom of the press? What role did Nearv. Minnesota(1931) have in extending freedom of the press?

The framers of the American constitution did endear that the press would be fully independent and would be exercised constitutionally without infringing into the rights of others. How the taste of time seems to have made some of the citizens misuse the freedom without considering the other parties involved in the releases. This was evidenced in Near Vs. Minnesota in 1931.

Cutting through the details of the requisite procedure, the effect and the operation of the statute does require that sufficient substance is provided for the publication. The publication of defamatory and scandalous materials, and unless the publisher is able to provide sufficient evidence should not be condoned and should be charged accordingly in a court of law. Altogether, what is required is evidence for any person to undertake publication.

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Religion has over the years been argued to be the best way of instilling morals in society. Ultimately, this purported morality is inherently the urge to have control over the activities of the members of society. Religion has been characterised by the setting of rules and standards that are seen as the critical requirement for better life beyond the present life; in the long run, this assists in having control over the congregation which is the society.

Equally it has been argued that religion is a way of saving the human soul well after death. Either way, there isn’t any sufficient empirical evidence that life exists after death. And perhaps this is another of the manipulative ways of gaining control over the congregation so that it remains subservient on pretext of gaining access to this said lucrative destination.

Discussion

On their part, the antagonists argue that religion exists as a tool for controlling society as a whole. In essence the argument seem to be different yet they have a common horizon; manipulative control (Pax). Ideally whether this assertion is true is largely very debatable and detestable of attestable. There seems to be an increasing concern over the ideal role of religion in society; salvation or a tool for ultimate control.

The onset of the spread of religious ideals promised much. The taste of time seems to be militating against this inherently inculcated belief. Apparently religion is today damaged to the very core with the realisation that religion is just perhaps a tool for control. The divinity of God seems to be taken in a lot of lacklustre (Oliver, 1994). Today the unwarranted mention of God seems to elicit much argument that translates into suites unlike earlier taken.  The image of God as a creator has suffered treason because of this belief that religion is after all a shear tool for control.

This belief seems to have emanated from a number of unfolding. Most notable is the fact that earlier religious proponents instilled fears into the congregation asserting that those who don’t follow the faith would be fed to the lions (Pax, 2007). The realisation by the congregation that this is not true after all has made the congregation to develop an attitude to religion.

Earlier believers even condemned those who believed in different faiths and a different god other that that in which they believed. When religion gained root with different faith teaching their beliefs to convincing and conviction, those who had prophesied condemnation received resistance from those they had condemned. Ultimately, this was the beginning of the problems of the religion.

The failures of most of the theories that concern the demise of the world have perhaps doubled up on the problems of the religion (Singh, 2010). Though the religious class had changed the approach of passing the message to the congregation to that of love, the congregation seems to have already lost their faith in these teachings. The fears that had been inculcated to have the congregation believe in the doctrines makes them remain very apprehensive and listen to the messages with pacified concern.

Religion had almost overpowered governments in terms of control over the subjects (Singh, 2010). Clearly, this control was merely developed through the development of fear amongst the congregation. This trend changed only with the onset of revolution. While fears had been inculcated, the onset of the revolution meant that the most of the religious practices were being denied and therefore reducing the influence altogether.

Perhaps one of the outstanding influences on the fears created by religion was the increased scientific inventions and innovation (Oliver). Science seems to have demystified empirically some of the occurrences that had been used in instilling fears within society. Science was able to explain some of the happenings within society that had been earlier used to show that indeed there existed some superpower that would not be overlooked and that was omnipotent, omniscient and omnipotent.

The future of religion presently looks very gleam and oblique (Pax, 2007). There has essentially been much oppression, judgment, exclusion, ill will and controversy over the rules that had been earlier developed concerning religious practices. Ideally, the shift of societal control from the religious class to the military forces seems to have reduced the initially inscribed role of religion in controlling the society. This shift in the centre of societal control seems to have caused the whores of the religious class.

The messages and practices that are related to religion are being highly censored. The reference to God has been presently believed by the society as a convenience practise (Oliver, 1994). The power that endear to control the world as a singular society seems to be more genuine compared to the religions class and has overridden the religious class in terms of control. Besides, unlike the creation of fears adopted by the religious class, the present order delves much on the positives of such control and hence gaining much leverage.

The increased numbers of religions and sects alike have doubled up the shift in control by the religious class (Singh, 2010). The religious class seems to be so preoccupied with winning the believers and the controversies are so abound that it has caused the lack of faith in this earlier influential class of society.

The religious wars such as the jihads have equally been used in the creation of fears among the congregation and the society. Where the society has a chance to discard these beliefs, it has been near imperative to do so. Ultimately, the resultant trend is that the religious class are not meant to save after all, rather, are meant to harm. The government in the past has equally used religion as a means of having the citizens subservient. However, the separation of the powers between the government and the religious class has made the government go it all alone in controlling the subjects.

The religious class has lost it earlier control similarly through the overemphasis of money in their affairs (Singh, 2010). It is equally this aspect that has become so rooted in the church that has further complicated the control of the church over the congregation and the society at large. Hardly can t be debated on whether money has been the key ruining aspect of the church. Most of the churches spend an estimated 32% of their worship time teaching about the tenets of giving (Oliver, 1994). Perhaps this abuse and over indulgence arise from the inability to access enough for supporting a life that is worth living in a system that one is not able to control.

In earnest, religion has been used in controlling through history; churches have made incessant attempts to ensure it maintains a control base on the morals and the ethics of the society. The intention was to have the reduction of crime initially; apparently the church is embroiled in the very brows of crime.

Conclusions

The foregoing discussion clearly shows that religion has over the years used fears a way of controlling its congregation. These attempts have been made either in isolation or on behalf of the government of the day (Oliver, 1994).  Nevertheless, the fact that some of the threats have lacked any scientific empirical backing has put the religious class at crossroads. Some of the theories postulated by the religious class concerning the demise of the church seem to have utterly worsened the impending church control over the congregation.

The preoccupation of the church with matters that are money centred has equally made the church loose its control over the church; replete of the fears that had earlier been inculcated by the taught doctrines. The beliefs of the society today notwithstanding, it is indisputable that whatever the stand, the church has over the years applied much of fear instilling in maintaining the loyalty of the congregation. Like it were, the realisation that these would be shear threats has reduced the popularity of the church and the religious class at large amongst the congregation.

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 World economies have been found to work in utter coordination with the least knowledge and plan for this coordination. Most of the economies through the world will always be influenced by the unfolding in the world economies replete of the existence of direct trade or integration. Australia has equally been prone to this economic dynamics with hardships and triumphs in the world economies eating into its economic trend. It is for this reason that economists try to apply models to determine the effects of the global economy and the domestic economy.

                        The aforementioned has been very incidental in the determination trends within the global economy and state economies. Trends in the economic performance of economies have been varying dependent on non economic factors. This shows the dynamism of the economic performance replete of direct economic factors but subject to other factors. The terrorist bombing of September 11 affected world economies beside the individual economy of the United States.

The outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus affected the business trends of the world because some of the integration had to be curtailed by the policies development consequent to the outbreak. Consequently the levels of trade activities with some countries were reduced because of the fears of contracting or spreading the virus.

            These factors have impacted largely on the investment, business and the economic prospects of the economies across the world. The uncertainties that have been prompted in by these unfolding normally influence the consumption behaviour of most of the consumers and thereby influencing the consumption trend and the economy as macro units. Because of the non economic factors, the global GDP had to drop in 2003 by a 0.3% point.

The war in Iraq affected the economic performances in most of the industrialised countries. Industrial production in most countries stagnated coupled with the fallout precipitated by the bursting prompted in the equity markets. According to the International Monetary fund, if economic recovery has t be achieved through the world, then the recovery has to be spearheaded by the United States of America. This shows that independent economies will largely depend on the word economic trend.

  The period of the war in Iraq and the upsurge of the SARS had a lot mixed signs. The financials markets of Australia had fluctuating trends that were not a health indicator for the Australian economy. Though equity markets were steadier, however any salient projection needed to take cognisance of the trends within the United States economy. The strength of the dollar deteriorated implying that the sales were to drop consequent to this dollar value.

  The turnaround in the global economy prompted by the strengthening equity markets saw the Australian economy start getting back to the right trend. The increase in the equity markets in the United Kingdom and that in Japan stimulated the Australian economy to get back on track. However, the performance of the Australian market was dependent largely on the interest rates in the larger economies of the world including the United States, the United Kingdom and the Japanese economies. This was expected to transfer to the equity markets funds from the bond markets.

After the 1997 global economic slowdown, which was prompted by the Asian crisis, the Australians economy was affected so much that the government had to review the then economic policies. Overall world exports stood at 12.5 point but slowed down to 9.12% in the year 2000 after the September 11^th bombing in the United States of America. At the same time the Australian economy was growing at 10.2%but subsequently dropped to 7.4%after the twin tower bombing in the United States of America.

 The volumes of the world exports stood at 7.7% per annum in 2000 but the level dropped considerably after the September bombing to 5.2%. On its part the Australian economy’s exports were reduced to 8.0% from 11%; this shows that the global economy can not be divorced from the individual state economies. The world trade has always been dominated by developed state hence implying that whatever affects the developed nations will always truckle down to affect the developing and the less developed.

The economic growth of the world has largely impacted on the Australian economic development prospects. According to economists, the Australian economy has been growing at one of the fastest rates in the world particularly compared to the economies of Europe, Japan and the USA. Because of the shrinking world economy, rural exports of the Australia have considerably dropped.

The weak world economy ha equally affected the exports of services in Australia. Services such as transport and have assisted the Australian economy remain median despite the dwindling global economic performance. Besides, the threat for international terrorism affected the Australian economy because travel rates went low due reduced demand for travelling arising from the fears.

The overall impact of globalisation has been that state economic development has been made a global affair. These trends have had a considerable effect on the economy of Australia through the effect it has had on the trade volume of Australia. The money market has also been largely impacted by the globalisation of trade. The exchange rate of Australia is largely dependent on the amount of integration with the international community which is affected by the other factors such as tourism and travel. A large proportion of the international exchange rarely does with the payments for goods and services, but transfer payment.

Currencies are rated based on the international currencies and the exchange rates thereto. The trends and unfolding in the international arena always affects the rate of exchange for the local currency against the international currencies. It is this rate that determines the economic performance of the local currency. The interest rates of any economy depend on the currency, commodity derivatives and the equities. An estimated rate of 75% accounts for the Australian turn over in form of swaps, forward rates and options.  Without the integration with the international community, the accessing foreign currencies become curtailed and in short supply. Consequently, the

                        During the years between 2001 and 2004 was robust changing strongly against the British pound, the Japanese yen and the American dollar. Its is the strengthening of the Australian dollar against the American dollar that makes the American dollar appear weak within the international trade.

                        The Australian economy at the time also strengthened because of the increasing demand for the Australian dollar at the time. Japanese investors have had a lot of interest in the Australian economy. The overseas demand for the Australian dollars has always been seen as a positive indicator in the performance of the Australian economy. It is with respect to this analogy the international economy and the state economies can not be looked at in isolation.

                        The projections in the international trade and bilateral dealings equally determine the projections of individual economies. The interest rate differential coupled with the future expectation of economies on the international scale plays a critical role in the determination of the path that an economy would trail. Intrinsic tendencies of foreign economies also have a very critical role in the determination of the prospects of any economy. There has also been increasing volatility with fund manager attempting to maximise profits despite the changes in the currencies values and interest rates.

                        Most countries have had to import requirement. Because oil is one of the core international commodities the international community has the least it can do in relation to controlling the trade that depends on this commodity. In 2003 for example Australia would not outperform the OECD as was the case in 2002. Australia had not enjoyed the competitive advantage that it used to enjoy earlier. Over the years the Australia had enjoyed a competitive advantage over countries such as the USA, the UK and Japan.

                        The lags in the international economic performance are of paramount importance in the determination of the probable domestic trend. The most requisite trend for the Australia would be slow but very steady global economic trend. In 2008 the economic growth of Australia was at 2.6% which has been projected to be largely dependent on the trends in the international economic trends. Though Australia boasts of being the 17^th country terms of GDP, turmoils in the economic performance globally will always dictate this stability.

                        In 2008 export trade was contributing to estimated $21.9 billions. This would be affected considerably with the instability in the global economy. Australia had imports at the same time valued at 22.8 billions which implies that Australia was equally engaged to the world and the world was engaged with it. Consequently any instability in the global economy would affect these transactions and affect the Australian trade.

                        The Australian economy has been performing well that has been prompted by very efficient banking system. The efficacy within the banking system has been able to assist the Australian economy remain on track despite the tides in the world economy. While the mining sector has put Australia on the world map except that if the world can not receive this minerals then the returns from this efforts would be worthless. In 2008, the global crisis affected the mining sector tremendously.

The drop in the demand for the Australian minerals impacts on the employment prospects of the Australian populace which are largely absorbed in the mining sector. The cost of living has gone up min Australia resulting from the high inflations that has been prompted by the increasing food prices and service.

Australia gets most of its manufactured products from foreign countries. The international policies have always had a critical role in the shaping of various economies across the world. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank have always had a critical role in the strategising of economies. This has always been done the development of conditionalities that are meant to give directions on the development of economic strategies.

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This Essay endears to reflect on any literature in-depth on some of roles of Traditional medical interventions in the provisions of health care rural Bolivian societies. In American Bolivian states such as Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, traditional medicine plays critical and important role in health care provision of indigenous societies. This is particular with those societies that are based in rural settings and those that are beyond government reach.

The use of traditional medicine have been over the years has been seen a critical in supplementing the modern medicine. These medicines have been found to be effective particularly when there are serving the intended purpose because this intervention has been found to have the least side effects to the users. In fact most of the traditional medicines are not only cheap compared to the modern medicines but can be accessed with much ease.

This paper looks at the use of traditional medicines in the Bolivian societies. The papers start by looking at the brief background on the use of traditional medicine across the globe. Most societies across the world have been found to have some form of traditional medicine. Within the background the paper traces the use of traditional medicines across a number of societies. Subsequently, the background shades light on the efficacy of the traditional medicines based on varying testimonies and confessions on the use of these medicines.

The paper will then give a thorough review of literature on the use of traditional medicines. Within the literature, the paper looks at the varying account on the use of traditional medicines. The paper looks at different communities and how they view the use of tradition medicines and some of the beliefs that have been developed consequent to the traditional medicines. The reviewed literature cuts across the globe but then it narrows down to the use of traditional medicines in Bolivian societies.

The paper will then critically analyse the literature reviewed with particular emphasis on the use of the traditional medicine in Bolivian societies which have been found to treasure traditional medicine compared to the generic medicinal. Subsequently, the paper addresses the other side of using traditional medicine as is perceived by the Bolivian society. While the Bolivian societies have been believed to put prime value to the use of traditional medicine, there are certain communities that have been found to view the use of traditional medicines with a lot of scepticism and suspicion.

The paper will wrap up with a conclusive remark recapping the discussion and giving an overall position on the use of traditional medicine both within the Bolivian societies and the world as a whole. In the conclusion an evaluative statement will be made on the prospects of traditional medicine within the medical fraternity and the path to be taken towards improving the efficiency of the use of these traditional medicines within society. Subsequently, the conclusion will give some caution on the use of these medicines; ranging from the side effects to the cost effectiveness of the use of these drugs.

 

 

 

 

Background of the Study

Traditional medicines have the longest history in the treatment and the prevention of ailments. In Africa and Asia, an estimated 80% of the population have been found to use traditional medicine according to the reports by the world health organisation. Traditional medicines have been largely depended on in both Africa and Asia for primary health needs. These traditional medicines have been found to be generating sufficient revenue for the sellers of the medicinal.

 

Babb, D., et al Use of traditional medicines Psychology, Health & Medicine, May2007, Vol. 12 Issue 3, p314-320

In this article Babb et al asserts that traditional medicines have been found to treat a conglomeration of infections conditions that are chronic. In china for example anti-malarial medicines were developed from artemisinin annua from which artemisinin. This plant had been over the years used as a treatment therapy for a number of ailments. The plant is found to have been used in the past 2000 years (Hedigan, p 765). The good side off the use traditional medicines have been dogged by the influx of counterfeits traditional medicines into the market. Some of the poor qualities of traditional medicines have flooded the market most of which are genuine yet very adulterated traditional original medicines.

The popularity gained by the traditional medicines has prompted various governments in the development of policies and legislations governing the use of traditional and herbal medicines. An estimated 100 countries have over the year developed such legislation imploring to the cardinal role that is being played by the traditional medicines.  The execution of traditional medicine has been a product of skills knowledge and practises. Experiences, theories and beliefs have been very central in the development of traditional medicine and the designing of the requisite prescriptions.

Though modern medicines have made numerous advancements in the treatment and prevention of diseases caused by virus and bacteria, these diseases were over the years treated through the use of traditional medicines without much struggle. The difference that is sticking is that the modern medicines have always had to undertake diagnosis and treatment thereof. Diseases such as diphtheria and whooping cough have been dully eliminated by the modern medicines. Nevertheless, traditional medicines had contained the diseases altogether.

While it is worth it appreciating the benefits of modern medicines, it needs to be equally appreciated that he utility of these modern medicines has only been inexistence over the last 100 years yet the traditional medicines have  lived the test of time assisting in the treatment and control of diseases. In his support for this Hedigan (Hedigan, p 765) asserts that it is these qualities of traditional medicines that make the medicines remain very critical in the treatment of the diseases. While traditional therapies lacked to some questionable extent the physiological connection between the diseases and the intervention, their efficacy was informed by the capsizing level of the ailment.

 

Cassidy, C., Moffet on the similarity of response to active and sham acupuncture Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine, Mar2009, Vol. 15 Issue 3, p209-210

The difference between the traditional medicines and the modern medicines would perhaps give sufficient insight into the reasons behind the modern traditional medicine development. Whereas the traditional medicines had therapeutically no basis, the traditional modern medicines, like modern generics have a lot of therapeutically supported ground and explanation linking intervention and the treatment therapy.

It needs to be appreciated too that reference to traditional medicines has always been used o make reference to practices that have not been very common in the modern medical practices. In retrospect while the present physician will make reference to their practises as traditional, this is meant to mean the frequency of applying the well prescribed practises in the medical field. Another of the major sticking difference between modern and traditional medicine is the way the practitioners define diseases. Traditional medicine and modern medicine seem to view the aspect of health and ailments differently.

Traditional practitioner placed a lot of emphasis on the social, spiritual and psychological conditions of the patient. These conditions were put central in the quest by traditional medicine practitioners in their treatment therapies. Modem medicines largely concern itself with the identification, the curing and the subsequent prevention of new cases. Traditional modern medicine amalgamates the diagnosis and the subsequent intervention fir the treatment of the diseases.

It has been over the last two decades argued that the dissatisfaction in the use of modern medicines has resulted into the desire to embrace the use of traditional medicines. Though the sudden change in the approach calls for the disguise of the practice to traditional modern rather than traditional medicines as it were, the preference for this therapy has been increasing over time. The outcomes of the interventions have always informed the overall approach to the interventions. However, the diversity in the meaning of the term outcome has equally given sufficient insight into the difference between modern and traditional medicine.

 

Kumar, K. J.,  Satyendra P., Risking alternative and complimentary medicines in the name of standardization Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine, Jun2006, Vol. 12 Issue 5, p419-420

In this journal Kumar argues that the dissatisfaction has been precipitated by the overall outcome of the form of the interventions. It is argued that there little evidence that is gathered from the patient’s part on the efficacy that forms the larger part of the outcome.  Modern medical practitioners simply compare the one treatment with the other being done in the form of the efficacy of the control and elimination prospects.

The treatment of HIV and AIDS is one of the striking diseases that have had to invite the intervention of the various interventions traditional and modern. For instance, studies do indicate that one cadre of drug would be better than the other towards keeping the patient with AIDS living. But then this leaves behind the notion that illness, health and dying could not have any other definition beyond biomedical experiments that are determined though the studies. The concerns of the patient from HIV and AIDS are there treatment and not the length of their lives thereafter.

The major strength of traditional medicines transformed to modern traditional medicines is that the practices concern itself with the social, psychological and the physiological wellbeing of the patient. The traditional medicine practitioners will prescribe the therapy and go ahead to ensure that the patient’s social state supports the healing process. The medicines and the interventions adopted by traditional practitioners are natural and environment friendly implying that the side effects of the interventions would be minimal. This is because it is relatively easy to have the have the natural and biological components of the intervention into the body than it is for the generics.

The foregoing discussion forms the central basis for why the Bolivian societies have a lot of preference for the traditional medicines than for the modern generic medicines. While there are cases where the Bolivian societies have had some preference for the generics, they have always preferred to have modern medicines combined with traditions medicines. Subsequently the Bolivian societies have made a lot of progress in ensuring that the medicines adopted by the medical systems are inclined towards the traditional that modern generic. This preference has a number of roots and resultant causes.

 

Literature Review and Perspectives on Use of Traditional Modern Medicines In Andean Societies

 

According to Broom et al (Broom, et al, p 233) the history of the use of traditional medicine has lived through the generations and therefore has a wealth of experiences. Though the challenges that have been faced by the practice have been insurmountable, the efficacy of these medicines can not be questioned. The main challenges have not basically lied in the efficacy of the treatment but in the biological and physiological link.

Traditional medicines have been adopted internationally with numerous diversities. Neimark (Neimark, p 52) supports Bloom’s arguments that different cultures have had their own approach to the use of traditional medicines. The main shortfall of the intervention has been the lack of the internationally specified standards for the exercising of the practices. Each culture seems to have developed its own standards. The practise has existed devoid of specific evaluative methods and a procedure which tends to make the practice less international.

Watson (Watson, p 126) states that the Bolivian societies have developed tentative national policies that govern the use of traditional. While there are many nations without regulations that govern the use traditional medicines this gesture by the Bolivian societies have put the Bolivian societies on the spotlight over their efficacy inn the use of traditional medicine. The Bolivian societies have been able to develop frameworks for the regulations of the use of the products, inherent practises and the regulations that govern the practitioners conduct. Traditional modern medicines take a herbal products as dietary supplements, food or herbal medicines. The disparities in the regulatory framework form the basis for the diversity in the utility of the traditional modern medicine products.

Similarly, Mbikusita-Lewanika  et al (Mbikusita-Lewanika  et al, p 235) assert that there are fewer tests that have been carried out to test for the efficacy and the scientific efficient of the use of traditional medicine products. While there exists evidence that the use of acupuncture has been very effective in the treatment of ailments, the evidence is based strictly on the outcome of the interventions and not scientific proof. This is what has been objected by the scientists and the proponents of modern generic medicines.

In their journal Cocks & Møller (Cocks & Møller, p 387) postulates that some therapies such as massages and herbal medicines have been found to be quite effective in the treatment of ailments. Further experiments on the practices and products are direly needed. Subsequently, requirements and procedures for evaluation and research need to be developed for the purpose of empirical proof of the efficacy and efficiency of the interventions. The effectiveness, safety and the transcend quality of the finished herbal products largely depend resource quality.

Most of the herbal products are collected from the wild plants and some from the cultivated medicinal plants. It has been argued that the expansion of the herbal medicinal demands jeopardizes the existence of the ecosystem. The antagonists of traditional medicines have always argued that this would lead to the extinction of certain plants and herbs.

Cassidy (Cassidy, p 209) also asserts that while it agreeable that indeed the biodiversity would be threatened, the livelihood of the biodiversity is fully dependent on the survival of the human species. The central solution to the challenge would strictly lie n the development of policies that would support human health as it ensures that the biodiversity is maintained. This will sustain humanity and preserve the biodiversity.

The perspective of Tenhunen (Tenhunen, p 315) seems to be different, he states that  the use of traditional medicines in the traditional Bolivian societies was viewed as jeopardising the livelihood of the patients. However, the development of the medicines through the traditional modern medicine initiative has gone a lone was towards increasing the safety of the users and the efficient of treating the intended ailments. Nevertheless, traditional medical practices and medicines would cause adverse reactions and harm if these products or therapies are of poor quality.

If the products are taken with other products it would turn out to be very inappropriate.  It has therefore become imperative to increase patient’s awareness on the safe use of the traditional medicines, communication among the providers and the subsequent collaboration. According to the world health organisation, it is critical that the practise of traditional medicines is integrated into the national health systems. The national policy should equally inculcate the use of the traditional modern medicines within the medical sector and ensure proper supervisions of the implementation process.

Cook, (Cook, S. J., p 95) recommends that policies developed should cater for the subsequent standardization of both the products and the products. Through this initiative the quality and the safety of the user of the traditional modern medicines should be assured. In additions the medicinal used should be based on the existence of the evidences on the practicability and the safety of the interventions. Through these policies, the safety of the user of the traditional medicines will be assured.

The Bolivian societies have been able to integrate the traditional medicines into the medical systems and it is for this reason that this intervention has become very popular among the Bolivian societies. The Bolivian societies have accepted the traditional medicines and practices as part of the medical systems. Primary Medicare has included the use of the traditional medicines as integral part of the system giving prospective users the options of using traditional medicine to modern generic medicines and medical practices.

Andeans have developed modes through which the skills and knowledge of the practitioners have been upgraded to ensure that they measure to the requisite standards (Tenhunen, p 325). This standardization has been able to make the use of the interventions as standards and accepted. Given that treatment and the subsequent healing is partly psychological, the fact that the patients feel secured and assured by the management of their health this contributes to the wellbeing of the patients.

According to Lengacher, (Lengacher, p 1450) the world health organization has over the years adopted a number of resolutions that have been able to bring to the attention the utility of traditional medicines in the treatment and supplementing of modern medicines. WHO appreciates the fact that despite the numerous generic interventions the interventions by the traditional medicine are not on fairly effective but are devoid of treacherous and far reaching side effects as is posed by the generics.

According to the World Health Organization, the world has much dependence on the use of traditional medicines for health care. In additions, the organisation does believe that the work force representing the practitioners in the traditional medical field has insurmountable potential as a vital resource in delivering primary health care services. Besides, the world health organisation recognises that medicinal plants have great import in the health of individuals and societies. Similarly, Puri (Puri, p 332) states that the Bolivian societies had this driving believe that kept them ardently attached to the traditional medicines and still attach much value of the modern traditional medicines.

The world health body has been collaboratively been working with centres situated over the world towards the integration and educating the populace on the importance of traditional Medicare in the treatment of ailment and as a means for supplementing modern medicine. Countries such as Korea, Sudan and the United States particularly in the Andean counties have been able to integrate the use of this medicine effectively.

According to Babb et al (Babb et al, p 319) there appears to be genuine concern over the various traditional practices that now exist amongst practitioners of modern medicine. There is an increasing number of practitioners in indigenous, alternative and traditional medical services. As the some of the diseases, the modern practitioners appears to be equally accepting the fact that traditional medicines can also be remedies for ailments that are posing challenges to the medical fraternity. This realisation is ideally time and was long overdue. This will assist the fostering teamwork among the two categories of approach to Medicare facilitate teamwork within primary health.

There are various reasons for which primary health care has o be included in the treatment of some of the ailments. Most importantly according to the Bolivian societies, the practitioners are well vast with the belief and the cultures of the patients and can ardently undertake interventions. Besides, the practitioners have a wealth of experiences in the field. This makes the practitioners capable of handling any complications.

Kumar & Satyendra (Kumar, K. J., Satyendra P., p 419) goes on to explain that the reasons for the appreciation of the traditional medicines seem to be manifold. The distances that have to be sometimes covered by the practitioners is also a key motivator in the quest by the Bolivian societies adoption of use of traditional medicines. Some of the members of the Bolivian societies are no able to meet the costs of using medical practitioners who apply the modern treatment techniques and therefore making it imperative that they seek alternative medical interventions. This makes the utility of the traditional medical practitioners near imperative and inevitable. The practitioners can hardly be accessed in the rural areas; before these professionals are reached the need for first aid intervention becomes very critical and imperative.

A large percentage of the populace in most of the developing countries according to Tenhunen (Tenhunen, p 330) largely rely on traditional medical practitioners. This includes birth attendants, bone setters and herbalists. Most of the practitioners depend on medicinal plants for the satisfaction of the medical needs of their clients. According to the statistic by the Wold Health Organisation, n estimated 95% of the rural birth worlds over are facilitated by traditional birth attendants. The World Health Organisations data also reveal that 70% of the births in developing and less developed countries’ urban centres are handled by traditional birth attendants.

Traditional medicines have maintained a lot of recognition numerous countries across the globe. Asian countries have been very particular in alternative medicines to traditional medicines. Pakistan and Japan have found the use of the traditional medicines very critical and inevitable despite their efforts in leveraging the role of modern medicines in the treatment of diseases. The statistics produced by the world health body asserts that an estimated 30% and 50% of the medical consumptions are herbal products. This shows that the utility of the traditional medicines is widespread and reliable.

Though the efficacy of the interventions of the traditional medicine is not recorded with certainty, it is argued that in North America, Europe and some of the industrialized countries have an estimated above 50% of their populations using the traditional medicines at least once per year (Chen, p 276). These statistics are a proof of the import that the traditional medical interventions hold.

Legislation on the control of the use of herbal medicinal seems to be evolving away from structured control model. There are varying ways through which various countries are defining the term herbal medicines and medicinal plants. It is in view of this that there are different approaches that have been developed for the licensing, manufacturing and the subsequent dispensing of the medicinal products. This has been done to ensure efficacy, quality and safety of the products.

Herbal medicines seem to be assuming larger vitality primary health care. This has subsequently led to the increase in the volume trade that is related to traditional medicines. Nevertheless, Banda, Y., et al (Banda, Y., et al, p 126) asserts that most of the countries have left the markets of the traditional medicines to chance without relevant regulations and legislations. Most of the products are not registered hence pecking a lot of questions on the likelihood of their safety. The development of stringent procedures for registration and regulation seems to be becoming central concerns for the stakeholders and governments, particularly in developing countries.

According to Burke et al (Burke, et al p 1083) statistics shows that United States has an estimated population of 158 million adults who use complementary medicines. The united states of American commission for alternative and complementary medicines reports that an estimated US $17 billion was utilised in the acquisitions of traditional medicinal remedies in 2000. Of the estimate the Bolivian societies had a whooping 71% of this allocation. This shows that Bolivian societies have much preference for traditional modern medicine than modern generics.

Curiously and appreciably so, Sinclair (Sinclair, p 132) asserts that some techniques of Bolivian traditional medicine have found fashionable utility spas of the United States and Europe. These practices have become part of the holistic therapeutic practices for alternative medicine. This has made research into the use of alternative traditional medicines calling and inevitable. The most common applications of traditional modern medicines have been the use of lodotherapy, aromatherapy, and the utilisation of flower extracts combined with crystals in the restoration of patients natural body balance.

Broom, et al (Broom, et al, p 233) argues that one of the resounding merits of traditional medicines is the fact that knowledge of the use of this practices and medicines is transmitted through the community orally. The family equally plays a critical role until the trainee or apprehendice is able to grasp clearly the procedures and the rules of administering the medicines. This makes this approach to learning not only practical throughout but also very effective. When the allegations of inefficiency in the utility of the medicines are raised the adherents will still use the interventions over time and perhaps disapprove the misconceptions.

Most of the countries with primeval history of traditional medicines have been hunting for the approaches that would used in the modernization their medical heritages. In the People’s Republic of China for example traditional medicine has been practiced side by side in the entire healthcare system. The Chinese government has given equal premium to the development of both traditional medicines and generics supporting these efforts through the support of active traditional medicines research and the promotions of traditional medicines.

Perspective Strength on Strengths and Weakness of Traditional Medicine As Is Used In Bolivia

The use of traditional medicines in Bolivian society has had a number of strengths and weaknesses. The strengths and the weakness have been found to boil down to the very specific herbs that have been used in the preparation of the traditional medicine. However, the advantages that traditional medicines have outweighed the disadvantages and perhaps that is why traditional medicines have become very popular in Bolivian societies and beyond. Different authors find the intervention as having varying merits.

Herbal medicines have been found to have fewer side effects compared to the generic medicines. The traditional medicines have been found to be very ideal for those people who have allergies. Herbal medicines have been found to treat numerous ailments. This ailments are inclusive of physical and mental ailments apparently this treatment don’t develop resistance for they have been used for years.

In the words of Wootton, (Wootton, p 225) herbal medicines have been found to treat ailments that have defeated the efforts of the generic medicines. Most of the ailments that have developed resistance to herbal medicines have been found to be contained or treated through the use of herbal medicines. Herbal medicines find very few exceptions for treatment and therefore becoming universally acceptable.

Tarkan (Tarkan, p 54) states that traditional medicines are less toxic and some of then non-toxic and quite efficient. Generic medicines are capable of giving such results. Traditional medicines are made from various plants with different minerals which can be very handy in the treatment of born ailments. The herbs also contain alkaloid that is effective in the treatment of a number of body complications.

Herbal medicines are less expensive compared to the generic medicines. Besides this traditional medicines have been found to be readily available. This is because the herbs normally grow in very common places and therefore very accessible. The ease of accessibility makes them relatively cheap.

On the other hand there are a number of shortfalls for traditional modern medicines. Most of the forms of herbal medicine have been found to take relatively long to act. There is the need therefore for a lot of patience while one in on traditional medicines. The lack of the patience makes the therapies that are adopted to be counterproductive. Some of the ingredients that are used inn the preparation of the traditional medicine may turn out to be allergic yet this attribute would not be so easily identified before the medicine is used. This makes the treatment a shear flux.

It has already been mentioned that most of the herbal medicines could be very allergic. Given the lack of the regulatory frameworks, this jeopardises the users of the medications.  This lack of government regulation makes quality control poor and hence reduces the safety of the users. The absolute necessity of finding a renowned practitioner of traditional medicine is relatively hard hence resulting into gambling.

In the trial carried out by Akhondzadeh, (Akhondzadeh, p 270) it emerged that traditional medicines are incapable of treating serious injuries such as broken legs. Hence it becomes imperative that the use of traditional medicine is combined with generic or regular medicines. Because the treatment via the use of traditional medicine does not take into consideration diagnosis, the treatment of heart diseases becomes very difficult. Subsequently if the herbs are not correctly identified, this could lead to poisoning.

Herbal medicines normally interact readily with generic medicines. Some of the herbs that are used in the treatment of anxiety such as St. John’s Wort and Valerian would readily interact with some of the antidepressants. It therefore becomes very important that consultation is done before they are used. This seeking of consultancy makes the treatment expensive.

Conclusion

The most critical intervention that needs to be addressed not only by the Bolivian society but the world at large is the passing of legislations that can effectively govern the use of the traditional modern medicines. Besides, those who are practising the use of traditions medicine should be both registered and supported in the furthering of incidental research. Besides, where the interventions appear very effective the government should support these efforts through incentives.

Given, the use of traditional medicines is a relatively welcome move that is able to complement the modern medicines effectively. Herbal medicines, if well administered can be just as effective and therefore the development of a framework within which the practitioners in the Andean regions would be a boost in the prospects of the utilisations of these therapies.

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Understanding the Aboriginals in Canada, their political, social, family and even economic structure that shared their practices and norms and girded their life is immensely imperative. Studies of the Aboriginal cultures in Canada are limited though they are emerging. For example, the traditional Aboriginal political cultures have stood as those that favor the pursuit of non interference, harmony, unanimity and persuasion (Wisemen, 2007, pp. 105). From the beginning, all members participated and shared equally all privileges in order to influence the political culture of the Aboriginals (Boldt 1993, pp. 176-177).  Their old way of life and the associated norms and values for example sharing, communalism, mutual aid, equality and decision through consensus has been lost even to the present Aboriginal people. The imposition of the western democratic practices on the traditional Aboriginal societies has hence created pressure though it has not necessarily destroyed their family and political structures completely.  The traditional way of life as far as the Aboriginals are concerned has influenced the present family structures. Their family, language, economic background and their history best explains their beliefs and values on their current and future systems. Though the political, social and economic culture of their family structure today is divergent as compared to that of yesterday, their historical influence is still quite perceptible.

The contemporary Canadian structures and culture have been profoundly influenced by the multiple Aboriginal cultures that had already developed before the Europeans arrived.  They were holistic and highly integrated. In their worldly views the political, mundane, artistic, spiritual dimensions and social as well as family structures were seen as being inseparable. Some of the cultural artifacts that they came up with comprising of their rich oral literature were part of their seamless fabric. Story telling was a major didactic tool that they used in transmitting of cultural precepts and were never intimidated by the western ideologies (Reingard, 2008, pp. 30).

The old government practices and policies that were aimed at stripping the Aboriginal people from their land and protecting them using the reserve system and hence assimilating them into a non native culture through educating them had a complex impact on the Aboriginals cultures. The Native practices as well as the world views have been relentlessly eroded and to some extent extinguished by the policies of marginalization, assimilation and delegitimation. They have overpoweringly demoralized the Aboriginal people both as communities and individuals. Most of their native language has turned out to be virtually extinct and most of their cultural practices are lost.

Today because of the increased political and educational assertiveness, there has been a revival of the Aboriginal culture and pride. Language instructions has become a major priority for most natives who do understand that they ought to act quickly if at all they need to take advantage of taking care of their elders memory. The Native ceremonies that incorporate drumming and dancing have been flourishing. Moreover, the Aboriginal people are working hard in order to synthesize their traditions with the European practices and systems that have inexorably shaped the contemporary situation.

The impact of the native culture and structures on the Canadian society began as a major localized process. Most of the Aboriginal cultural groups left some legacy albeit imprecise by the white appropriation which shaped the regional sensibility of all the areas in which they used to live. From the past original contact, the Aboriginal experience and presence have contributed to cultural identity and mythology among the Canadians. There have been a number of non Aboriginal authors who have written on the native characters drawing upon the Aboriginal symbols in order to develop an authentic Aboriginal Canadian literature which does reflect on the country’s landscape, language as well as sensibilities.

The Canadian visual traditional arts have absorbed the Aboriginal people. People have been engaged in arts just to draw and paint the native people as well as express their way of life thus initiating long standing traditions of the Aboriginal people as the main subject. Most of the activities today have been borrowed from the native political, economic, family and social structures of the Aboriginal people. For example Canadian music has also been highly borrowed and influenced by the native Aboriginals through using Aboriginal materials and elements.

The ancient structures of the Aboriginal society was based on the extended family groups that allowed a kinship system which used to set out rules on how the members were related as well as their positions in the entire community. The traditional structure of the family shows that these structures are still quite evident in the urban and modern indigenous families. In the traditional settings, all the indigenous people do have a recognized relationship with one another either through language, blood, marriage or clan. Following the traditional practices, marriages outside the kinship structure are highly forbidden and the transgressions are usually dealt with according to the tribal war (Paul, 2002, pp. 256). The arranged marriages are quite common and are usually arranged in the early infant ages. The families due to the influence of the traditional set up structures have a very strong commitment to the extended families as the whole group usually gathers together during important events. The Aboriginal family structures have gone through immense pressure with the separation of the families and children as well as the inter-racial marriages and the imposition of the white culture on their people. However, despite the pressures, their structures are still intact.  Their family structures and kinship are still unified forces that bind the Aboriginals in Canada together.

Since 1880, Canadian government has regulated the indigenous people under the Indian Act (Judith, Murray & John, 2009, pp. 121).  This Act had been designed in order to implement a Eurocentric concept of the family unit.  The family ties have continued to be crucial in maintaining the well being of all the indigenous communities. Therefore, family breakdown is usually more severe as compared to the nonindigenous people.

The Aboriginals in Canada had in the past held their aging members in high esteem as they turned to grandfathers and mothers for advice, guidance and teaching raising of the children as well as maintaining the ancient cultural practices. The senior members transmitted the ancestral wisdom as well as playing of active roles in each day life of the entire community. However the transition to the modern styles of life brought dramatic social changes that hence resulted in vast numbers of the Aboriginal seniors who were no longer considered as productive in the society. The productive roles they used to play have been replaced and to some extent eliminated. The strong traditional values for example religion have helped so many people in molding their life to be what they are today.

The Aboriginals and generally the Canadians have used sociological imagination in order to shift from one stage to the other though to some extent their past has dictated their pathetic present circumstances.  Aborigines have lived in Canada for many years hence have developed survival adaptation in Canada. Before the Europeans settled, fishing, hunting as well as gathering were their main social imagination methods of getting the food. In examining  (Charles, 2000),  cultural factors of sociological imagination , the food beliefs among the Aborigines was presented on the grounds that the fatty red meat was a main part of the family meals that was considered satisfying, nourishing and fulfilling and salads as well as fruit are considered to be just cold. These cultural beliefs have been borrowed even today.  The Aboriginals do prefer eating the family meals than being separated from eating family food as a way to show respect and belonging. However, this has been influenced by the recent medical technology thus most people eat as directed by their doctors.

Without question, the past has helped in molding the present politics, culture and social systems. The sporadic penetration of the wilderness and then return to civilization is a basic rhythm of Aboriginal Canadians way of life which began with the equation of the Aboriginal with the uncivilized and the wilderness. Through this process, there have been a multitude of some ethnocentric images of the Aboriginals which have distorted their culture thus making it complex for those who have been steeped in the Western cultures to view the native people with clarity.

The problem of getting a more authentic picture of the Aboriginal cultures in Canada have been complicated by the images that the settler culture had created by the influence of Europeans on the Aboriginal cultures as well as the inevitable imprint of the Eurocentrism on the most rational attempts to go ahead and help preserve the cultures.

Through the numerous collection of the settler culture as well as the recent works of the aboriginal storytellers and scholars who have already been in a position to tap the oral traditions of their people, most people have acquired a sense of native. The dramatists, native writers, visual artists as well as actors have demonstrated the continuing process of the cross-cultural interactions. Therefore it is apparent that history has shaped the professional, cultural and social status of the Canadian families as most people can relate with their traditional cultures through the work of the artists, actors, dramatists and others. Through these people are in a position to integrate with their traditions as well as western influence without necessarily having to do away completely with their past.

Aboriginal people living in Canada have experienced a history of oppression and colonization which has continued to have a major effect on them even today. To comprehend their recent multifaceted catastrophes, the Aboriginal researchers and scholars should include the contextual and historical analysis since the current behaviors have been highly influenced by the previous governmental policies.  Colonization has had a long and negative impact on them as far as oppression, identity loss and subjugation is concerned. This has negatively shaped the expectations of the family members on their children as the identity loss has led to reduced self esteem and change in behavior. The government has done little to correct the situation as it has been busy integrating policies of the west and forgetting the traditional framework. Treatment of the Aboriginals in Canada has been an international disgrace. Though the healing process is slowly taking effect and a lot of money is used by the government on the Aboriginals, their problems have continued to persist and there has been no economic development on their part. Most of the decisions are usually made without the consultation of the Aboriginals. This is quite disrespectful and emotionally and morally debilitating. They should be given a chance to present their problems; otherwise the crime rate among them will continue to amplify as a result of depression and disappointments.

Social conflict theory (Otomar & Paul, 2002) has been used immensely to exploit the Aboriginals. Power and resources have been the main mechanism that has been used in creating social disorders among the poor and the rich. The Aboriginals have faced social conflicts like racism, prejudice, segregation, assimilation and even genocide. The social conflicts aided in family breakdowns and assimilation of other cultural beliefs and practices. There was breakdown of morals and the structural functionalism theory also played a major role in changing the family structure as the Aboriginals believed that the inequality concept would benefit them because there were promises of great rewards that motivated them.

The oppression and denial have left little expectations to the family members.  If the same strategies continue being used to curb the problems that have been facing the Aboriginal communities, there is no much hope in improving their financial, economic, social and political units. The present status and remedies will help a lot to shape the future status of the Aboriginals

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The movement on promoting the right’s of women as human rights have gained visibility and achieved a major mainstream status.  The law has been oppressive of women and the emancipation as well as promotion of their interests has been of limited value.  There have been numerous claims that in numerous respects, the law has been inherently male oriented. Most people assert that it had been designed by men in order to serve predominantly on the interests of men and functioned historically in order to maintain male domination and refute to withstand divergent reforms. The inherent bias against the women in law is usually evident in the domestic as well as the international law. This paper will hence analyze various articles and discuss on the role that class, gender, ethnicity as well as locale play as far as women’s rights are concerned. It will give a detailed analysis of the theoretical issues that have been addressed and how reality has made theory in the cases complicated once the reality is taken in full account and the extent at which the authors agree on the points they bring up as well as the recommendations.

The stereotypical image of a woman comes mainly from the modern males who have for a long time dominated most fields in the workforce. Women’s rights have been long neglected and ignored. Women’s rights are usually the freedoms and entitlements that are usually claimed by girls and women of all ages in the society. In some societies, the rights are usually institutionalized and supported by the local custom, law as well as behavior though they are highly suppressed and ignored. Some of the issues that are commonly associated with the notion of women’s rights comprise of the right to bodily autonomy and integrity, to vote, holding the public office, and working, having equal and fair wages, owning property, education and even serve in the military.

In the book “Universal human rights: moral order in a divided world” (David & Mortimer, 2005, pp. 81), Lucinda argues that for a very long time the feminist scholars as well as the human rights agencies and organizations  have worked hard in order to incorporate the rights of women in order to end the oppression of women globally. In the book, Lucinda expresses some feminist concerns. The title itself is controversial as it creates a mental picture on what she is about to say next; are women human. She affirms that women have been long neglected and even excluded from the debate over legal rights and law as well as the international human rights. Also she affirms that women have lacked support of other women thus their opinion and meanings are unlikely to range over the normal basic interests of women. Most people have felt that it is unreasonable for women to be empowered and their interests advanced.

She asserts that the feminist theory commenced in USA with liberal approach then the cultural and finally the gender critiques. She asserts that in order to curb all the worries that feminism brings about; there is a need of a more self conscious pragmatic feminism which is usually more fruitful way of struggling with feminism in order to end patriarchy. She argues that the diversity of the institutional and cultural contexts in which girls and women are oppressed and the diversity of the interests affirmed by girls and women do demand a flexible and a pragmatic approach to the rights of women. This kind of approach is hence suited in promoting the feminist goals as well as respecting the women’s agency in order to determine on the course of their lives.

Lucinda argues that men ought to resolve conflicts on the ethics of justice basis that is usually framed in terms of the individual rights as well as abstract legalistic justice and fairness principles while the women usually resolve the conflicts on ethic of care basis that is usually less adversarial and does embody the principles of maintaining relationships, nurturing as well as community.

In the article “do Muslim women really need saving?  Anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others”, Abu-Lughod (2002, pp. 783), explores on the ethics on the war against terrorism asking on whether or not anthropology which is a field that has been devoted on comprehending as well as dealing with the cultural differences can offer us justifications made for USA intervention in the Afghanistan as far as saving and liberating are concerned.

She affirms that there are patent dangers in reifying culture and creating attractive culture icons for example the Muslim woman over the messy political and historical dynamics. She argues that there should be equality, rights and freedom among the Muslim women. There is a need to work with those women in the situations that are subject to the historical transformation and consider some of the powerful global injustice that have always inflicted them. She deeply analyzes the feminists from the west and those who are concerned about women and the plight of the Muslim women.

Understanding of cultural differences is the main key to being functional in the ever changing world. Lila Abu-Lughod has confronted the western paternalism and has suggested that instead of just trying to force on some values to other people, we ought to endeavor in making the world more just. Is it possible to be a feminist and at the same time not be a western? Lila challenges people to evaluate as well as confront comprehensions on feminism. Do women or feminism have any relevance as far as cross culture is concerned? Lila argues that feminism should not be exclusive to the western cosmopolitanism. However, it is usually a unique form of gender equity that is better comprehend when the westerners reevaluate on their comprehensions of the Muslim culture  as well as the role of the women in that culture.

The author hence argues that the fight against terrorism is also a major fight on the dignity as well as the rights of the women. The platitudes on the plight of the Muslim women have been immensely criticized as being more than just a racist diatribe that is usually used in justifying US intervention in the underlying countries.

The westerners have so many misunderstandings on the purpose of women who cover their heads and are always interpreted as a desire to limit the freedom of women.  This perspective hence ignores on the concept of women who cover themselves as being an Islamic mark of piety and identity.

Abu- Lugod has suggested that though The Taliban’s influence in the Afghanistan has been highly reduced over years, most Muslim women have not rejoiced about it.   This has hence gone right in the face of the simplistic view of the traditions as well as the religion of other cultures. Most people assume that keeping the veil can be out of fear for example because abused wives are always afraid of leaving their husbands.  He adds that this veil usually adds the Muslim women an added ability and mobility to move about in the public places. He affirms that it is not really usually out of fear but about the moral and religious laws of the Muslim people in keeping of women from being seen by some unrelated men.

Abu-Lughod asserts that we ought to accept on the fact that we are all quite different and we all want as well as need divergent things. The reasons why the Muslim women would want to remove the veil can be quite divergent from the reasons of the Western women.  She affirms that people do not need to be just cultural relativists but we ought to have prior knowledge on the histories as well as circumstances that we require in order to comprehend that the veil is usually a social structure. The author also brings the fact that Eastern feminists as well as the western have divergent goals since they are usually come from divergent cultures. She urges all people to unite and be supportive to all feminism. In an attempt to free the women and focus on the forced veiling without having to take into account the true culture relativism, we are hence dividing the world into divergent spheres through recreating geography of west versus East.

Women ought to be respected and understood according to the cultures they are coming from.  The veil should not be seen as a sign of slavery but as a sign of freedom and protection. The women hence need no any saving as they have been saved by their culture.

Sally (2003, pp. 55-76) in her article “human rights law and the demonization of culture”, talks at length on the rights of women in Pakistan. She is in conflict with the rights of women and the Pakistan culture on the issue that concerned raping of a certain woman that had been localized by the local council. She asserts that cultures have no any expansion of capitalism and should not be excused in violating the rights of women. He argues that most anthropologist withhold human rights only in an attempt to embrace and protect the culture.

There are numerous theories of culture that make people act the way they do. The view of culture as integrated, homogenous as well as a consensual system definitely meaning that culture ought to be criticized as well as accepted as a whole. The conception of the culture as being just static tradition is quite fundamental to the contemporary transnational discourse of human rights. Political movements for example the fight against issues to do with female genital mutilation hence reinforce on the notion of culture.  These practices have brought physical and mental suffering and pain to these women and girls’ hence suffering under this practice entails its duty on the women’s sexuality which is restricted and their subordination ensured. The author asserts that the African women have been faced by numerous problems including lack of access to quality education, jobs, adequate food and water and equal inheritance. Struggles against FGM have been conceptualized as being against culture and is quite specific against some of the ancient and harmful traditional practices.

The authors of the three articles have embarked deeply on the role of gender as far as women’s rights are concerned. They all affirm that a gender blind universal perspective is quite common and little has been done in expressing of some of the inequalities that are predominant between both men and women. They reveal that the invisibility of issues to do with gender in all political agendas have huge implications. Women have continually being underestimated and though much have been written on their rights, very little has been done as far as making their rights known and accepted.

In order to counter the blindness, there is hence a need to counter the gender blindness and focus immensely on the rights of women as well as adopt gender lenses in all the dimensions that deals with advocacy, monitoring, planning learning and even reflection. There ought to be some special attention on issues affecting the lives of girls and women in order to come up as well as build affirmative strategies to overcome the social and political differences between both men and women. Gender discrimination has been a rooted problem and is usually seen as something that can never change.  This perspective and attitude hence tends to depoliticize on the gender issues pitting them outside the actual agenda of reflection and political action. In order for women to achieve justice, it is essential for them to be at per with each other and have a firm approach through cultural fundamentalisms.

The three authors have immensely debated on the issues affecting women and the major plights of women. Lucinda argues that women have been denied chances in high positions and the fact that women have been disunited thus discrimination has taken place. Abu-Lughod on the other hand expounds on the rights of Muslim women and the reasons why their dressing code should be respected and not seen as a sign of fear or discrimination.

Sally analyzes on the rights of Pakistan women and how people have used the culture to dehumanize and manipulate women. There is a need for women empowerment in order to correct on the social injustices that have surrounded them. Ethnicity has played a major role too as far as the rights of women are concerned. People coming from various cultural background and ethnicity have a way in which they view the rights of women on the simple concepts of culture.

The locality as well as the class is also another factor that affects the rights of women. As Abu-Lughod asserts, people are different and their localities are also different thus their culture and needs are different and ought to be protected and respected in order to prevent the infringement on the rights of women. Women need to come together to respect and support each other

The reality that is reflected in these cases has made the theory to be more complicated. Most of the content that has been discussed have emphasized on culture in relation to human rights. The theoretical analysis is quite complicated as it almost assumes that one thing has to be given up in order to achieve the concept of human rights among women. Culture has played a major role as far as human rights are concerned and it is imperative that culture and the rights of women be separated in order to achieve balance and stop the issues of discrimination against women.

The three authors have agreed that women’s rights are quite imperative and there is a need to focus on the pressing issues that have so far been a major threat to women’s rights though have been highly ignored.. They have discussed on the issues of culture and how culture have been used to infringe on the rights of women. They all assert that women’s rights should be embarked on and they should be respected irrespective of their cultural background affiliations. Cultures should be seen as a stepping ground for justice and unity and not a source of fear and discrimination.

Women’s rights globally are a crucial indicator in comprehension of the global well being.  Despite numerous successes in empowering of women , there are still numerous issues that are still in existence in all areas of life that range from political, economic as well as cultural.  Most people might think that the women’s rights are just issues in some certain areas for example in Muslim countries. However, research has shown otherwise as this has turned to be a global issue that ought to be addressed.  The importance of women’s rights as well as gender equality ought to be never underestimated as they are equally important people in the society.

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“Almost the entire world views the BRIC Countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) as better destinations for investment especially in search of new avenues for economic growth. The four countries are currently the globe’s emerging markets. Being a postgraduate student who is almost graduating and considers building up on my career, the BRICs exhibit themselves as the best destinations and environments with potential success factors for enhancing career wise. Of the four nations, I deem China fit for career development. This calls for the potential differences that settle my interest squarely on China. The differences compare the four countries in political, economical, social and technological aspects as I will argue out on below.

“First, let us have an oversight of some common things that identify each of the BRIC countries. Brazil brags in being among the five most populated nations the world over. It is also positioned the ninth highest GDP worldwide. Russia is ranked seventh of the highest GDP. India on the other hand is fourth highest in the GDP ranking and the second most populated in the world while China is the world’s most populated and ranked fourth highest GDP.

“In respect to career development needs, China exhibits itself as the best destination of all the BRICs as it offers an environment that is accommodation of the aspects in life mentioned above. Politically, it has been stable both in its internal affairs and even external. Its political stability has been of essential contribution towards high living standards for its citizenry as opposed to India and Brazil. China’s policies that govern its revenue collection are favorable for career developments. Besides, the set laws and regulations both in the employment sector and the environment at large are conducive in that they do not suppress career development interests unlike in Russia which is stricter on the foreigners seeking avenues to enhance their careers. For India and Brazil, the laws and regulations employed do not seek to enhance recognition of their education beyond their boundaries. These concerns are essential and dictate the choice of China to pursue development in career among the BRIC nations.

“Trade systems of a country are a reflection of a given country’s political stability and China has been politically stable and not frequent on news regarding political issues or on bad international relationships with other nations. Trade wise, it has kept stability through its diverse trade systems which have been extensive even outside its boundaries. Unlike the other three BRIC countries, China has strong trade ties with many nations and its market is evidently wide across the globe.

“Economically, China is solely dependent on its own and has been growing steadily in its economy. Though Russia is economically fit, it does suffer economically due to its unpredictable population, as well as India and Brazil. None of the BRIC countries has a potential of being a major hub for trade in the world as China. China possesses an economy that is based on its market which is free within the foreign trade regulations compared with the other BRIC nations. China’s economic reforms have also placed it in the best position for career development.

“Through its economic reforms, China displays most realistic and reliable interest rates of the four BRIC countries. This favors investment not only in the foreign market and trade but also in the career development sectors. Foreign exchange rates have also placed China as one of the most profiting nations when the exchanges are based on its currency. This is never seen in the other BRIC nations which have always been left out in the exchange rates markets. Apart from the good exchange rates, inflation is not a serious concern in China’s economic growth as is experienced with the BRIC nations – though to a less extent in Russia.

“In social considerations of the BRIC nations, China has recorded its population as the highest in the world, but this has not been a barrier to any forms of developments. Unlike the other BRIC nations, China has been able to formulate strategies to counteract the same. Health status in China is enhanced with innovations into their rich cultural heritage. In fact, the Chinese have modernized their traditional systems of health practices. Though this appears to be very conservative, India, Brazil and Russia have no innovations in the health sector and they instead rely on China at some point.

“Age distribution among the Chinese is even, ensuring development of good career attitudes through its high population which have created an environment enriched with carrier options and different areas of specialization in opposition to Brazil, India and Russia which have always positioned themselves on their initial specialties. With the high population, safety of the people has been prioritized. Unlike in India with the second largest population in the world, China has boosted its safety measures even in the curricula of most careers to ensure safety for the population. Safety should be emphasized on under all circumstances yet this is not very much considered in the other BRIC countries.

“On the final point, we look into the technological aspect of these four nations and how they are placed into career pursuance. Unlike India and Brazil which rely on the imported technologies, China has gone on its own to invent its unique and automotive devices in major operations, including career development. China is ranked high in technology as compared to the other BRIC nations. The rate of technological change is also high in China, thereby offering the best environment in career development. Apart from that, this comes with a lot of technological incentives which are not available in the other BRIC nations. China therefore is a suitable selection of the BRIC countries for career development.”

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Street gangs are very prevalent in urban cities today, these gangs cause a state of panic in any society. From Robert Merton’s strain theory these street gangs are striving to achieve goals which are stipulated by the society. The same society has stipulated legitimate ways which are legal and moral means to achieve these goals. In an ideal society these goals  contributes success  which is  denoted by respect, wealth, a good job and a family and the means to achieve  these goals are available through  hard work and patience  in  education and employment.. Merton calls these two the legitimate means to success. However, this is not always the case since these two opportunities or goals are not equally distributed in the society. This creates tension in the society which in return causes a ‘strain’. Instead of joining hands to confront these inequalities, Merton argues that people respond through four ways in order to adapt to these denied opportunities. (Merton 229-241)

According to Merton, the most common  way is  conformity where  people  will do the best  with what is available  and remain positive that  eventually they will meet the societies goals regardless of  whether they achieve them or not. This response is what he calls conformity. Another way of adopting is through innovation .In both ways individuals remains committed to achieving their goals but use different means to achieve that.

Merton argues  that  some  individuals  however resign to the fact that they will never achieve these goals  Merton theorizes that these individuals eventually reject  societies goals  in two ways they may resign to the fact that they may never achieve the  societies prescribed goals but still choose to  commit to the societies s institutions of achievements Alternatively,  there are those who after realizing they may never  achieve societies set goals , become deviants by rejecting society’s institutions all together . Merton  refers to this   response as retreatism   i.e. people who reject both the  means and goals advanced by society .This group  eventually drops out of the society and just like  in innovation they  can choose  deviant  but legal means  like gambling or criminal activities and this is where criminal gangs  who ate very prevalent today are formed.   Since most of these success ideals are very common In urban areas where people are more educated and working in formal employment, its easy to explain why these gangs are more prevalent in urban areas. These gangs are therefore trying to find deferent ways to advance in a society where opportunities are blocked. They adopt a different method in order to achieve their goals and crime happens to be this new path which enables them to pursue these goals. They therefore form their own values and behave as if this is the norm.

To Durkheim deviant behavior such as that observed from street gangs is cased by a state of normlessness.To Durkheim, this occurs when the general rules governing a society break down and thereby people no longer know how to behave with each other. This state of having no norms lead to deviant behavior this is what Durkheim calls anomie. (Durkheim 58)

 

According to Durkheim, society evolves from a simple, non-specialized form, which he refers to as mechanical, toward a highly complex, specialized form, which he refers to as organic.   In the simple  society individuals think and behave the same have the same goals and perform the same work tasks When societies become more complex,  the everything becomes complex, people are no longer close to each other  and also adopt impersonalized social bonds . This leads to a state of anomie whereby norms no longer control the members activities in the society without  roles  the society gets disorganized .Due to the changing conditions in society as  well as adjustment  to the new developments in life  there  to dissatisfaction, conflict, and  eventually this also leads to deviance. Increased levels of anomie lead to crime and it’s this way that the prevalent of criminal gangs can be said to come up. Due to the complex urban life compared to that found in rural areas there are many loop holes that enable gangs to operate.

Functionalist theorists Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton argues that crime plays a very important function n in every society.   In most societies members live individual lives are different from each other join together to condemn and even fight crime which is perceived as a common enemy. This coming together in return allows these people to see that  they have  something in common and in return this brings social; cohesion in the society. Merton observes that crime is important if the society has to progress socially. He argues that the society should not inhibit criminal behavior.The society must be free and allow criminals to act in their hurting behavior and in return, this allows the wise to act in defense of the society. This way the wise will device ways of countering the criminals behavior and which are new and progressive and this saves the society from being stagnant.

According to Merton, crime is a normal aspect of any society, however he does not suggest that crime is necessary in order for a society to progress. However he argues that due to the social structure which is riddled with inequalities when it comes to wealth distribution and available opportunities, crime is required in order to maintain stability due an un equal social structure.

The strain theory has been criticized in that not every member as a criminal gang struggles with life goals. There are instances where rebellious children from well up families who can afford a good education and employment also join these gangs. Durkheim, theory of anomie ignores the fact that crime does not necessarily exist in complex settings. Crime is evident even in the simplest of the societies.

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Domestic violence is common in every country and cuts across people from all races, cultures, class, age and level of education globally. According Karlekar (1999) Rape and domestic violence accounts for 5% of both physical and non physical ailments among women aged between the ages of 15 to 44 years. Despite the  phenomenal  efforts that have been put up by various agencies such as the united nations, international  non governmental organisations and even other women movements, domestic violence still persists as  a global epidemic and one of the critical areas that need to be tackled especially in relation to women. However this is not to conclude that women are the only victims of domestic violence. Men, children and the aged have also been victims of the same. Domestic violence remains one of the most persistently violated human right that denies the victims especially women dignity, self worth, right to fundamental freedom and even equality. This particular essay will concentrate on domestic violence in India, the various ways in which it is meted to the victims and even how it traverses across various demographics. The essay also looks at a case study in India that caught media attention globally and some of the statistics on domestic violence both in India and globally. In addition the essay looks at some of the advanced definitions of violence and domestic violence and some sociological theories that relate to domestic violence.

       Violence refers to the expression of force either physically or verbally against another person, resulting to pain, injuries or destruction, usually done against ones will. Violence in most case is used as a tool for manipulation the world over. According to the world health organisation (WHO), over 1.6 million people world wide lose their lives to violence. WHO has also rated violence as one of the leading causes of death in people aged between 15 to 44 years. This accounts for 14% of deaths among males and 7 % among females. This is not to forget that  apart from  those people who die from the violence, scores of others are injured, maimed and suffer psychologically from the various forms of violence .Violence has a very negative impact on development of any nation. This is because in the effort to curb violence, resources which could have been used in other development agenda are wasted. Governments trying to curb violence spend resources on law enforcement, health care for those affected, especially in cases where the violence is physical and also in lost productivity still for those maimed due to the violence or even those affected and wasting their lives in prisons.

There are various theories that relate to domestic violence. These incude: Social learning theory; which suggests that violence is transmitted from one generation to the other. People learn from observing behaviours and imitating them. If the behaviour is violent they imitate it and this behaviour is likely to continue. From this theory it is assumed that men learn to be violent through observing   for instance, their parents and since women also observed their mothers being battered and do nothing, then it becomes a cycle. The resource theory by William Goode suggests that since women are more dependent on their spouses economically, they always fear the burden of taking care of the expenses in the absence of their spouses. They are afraid to leave their marriages therefore, since they have very few options and resources to cope once they leave.

Domestic violence also referred to intimate partner  violence(IPV) or  domestic abuse refers to  a pattern of abuse or coercive  behaviour  that is usually perpetrated by  one or both partners who are in an intimate relationship or by one person against a family or house hold  member be in a marriage, family, dating are even a cohabitation setting Usually the aim of the perpetrator is to gain  control  and power over the other person in a  relationship setting. Lisa , Albert and John (2002) defines as domestic violence as a broad range of acts which are interpersonal in nature involving a victim and an offender whereby those involved are related.

Domestic violence  can  take  many forms which could be physical violence, mental  through intimidation and use of threats, verbal  and sexual abuse economic deprivation, emotional through, controlling and domineering the other  person or  psychological  intimidation,isolation,economic control, stalking and even property destruction                                                                                                                                                                 It’s important to note that despite the fact that most studies have found that men inflict injury at highest rates in most of the cases; they also suffer as a result of domestic violence.  De Becker (1997) notes that in most cases men regardless of their age or the part of the world they come from tend to be more violent than women. However it has also been noted that most women engage in gender based violence as a way of self defence. Domestic violence is not only a violation of ones human right  but  has also been rated as alone of the causes of major health problems especially among  women..  Martins (1981) argues that the problem of domestic violence is not necessary as a result of the relationship between a husband and wife but historical attitudes by men towards women and the economy. He specifically notes that the legal and social services are inadequate. He there fore suggests that the police and prosecution in such cases be controlled.

Domestic violence is used to isolate the victim making them helpless especially when they re dependent on the perpetrator. This usually robs the victim their inner strength, feelings of self-worth and even the ability to make personal choices.  In most cases the victims takes the blame and feel that they are the main cause of the abuse. This is mainly why most people prefer not to report such kind of violence. They are not even willing to share it with someone close. Surviving from domestic violence is like walking from a raging fire. Usually the fire will have consumed your home, your life and even how you define yourself. You are left wondering how the fire started in the first place, how it spread and even how you took too long to escape, Mitchell (1999) .This is a key tactic used by the perpetrators of violence as in return they gain power and control. Children on the other end are traumatised by domestic violence and they also feel unsafe and that they are responsible for the abuse. This as explained in the theories this may be replicated in their adult life too. Michael and Sherre (1998) explains that there’s in enough evidence that rigid and harsh child rearing methods produce punitive and authoritarian adults

        Domestic violence is not peculiar to any country but is a recurring phenomenon in the whole world. In the 1970s, women movements caught the world attention by highlighting domestic violence and women’s rights their main concern was wife battery. In the late 1970s statistics have indicated that 248 of every 1,000 females and 76 of every 1,000 males are victims of   domestic violence usually committed by the spouses. Due to the increased awareness of women rights as human rights, and the increase in the number of women movements and  International non governmental organisations.(INGOS)  concerned with  the getting these rights recognised,  this has resulted to gender violence  emerging as a global issue.

Domestic violence has however remained low on the human rights agenda until in the early 80’s despite with the increasing evidence that it was rampant. Putting the concept of domestic violence as a human rights issue is a recent development and translating it into the international legalities and translating it into to programmes and policies at the grassroot level is still a main challenge. It is only after the 1990s when major advancements regarding domestic violence were recognised in the global human rights agenda. Over the last two decades, domestic violence has received increased recognition in most western countries such as the United States of America, Canada and other European countries.

In 1992 a critical step towards recognising domestic violence was made by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) under the general recommendation .The CEDAW submitted that gender based violence which constitutes domestic violence perpetrated on women, constitutes a form of discrimination and could therefore amount to breach of specific CEDAW provisions. This was during their 11^th session. In 1993 there was another major development when the United Nations general assembly made a declaration on the elimination of violence against women. The 1995  world conference  for  women  held in Beijing was also a major milestone in the fight against  gender based violence .As a women  rights movement, the Beijing conference for women  developed the Beijing platform for action(BPFA) .This platform set out twelve areas considered  very critical areas of concern as far as women are involved. The (BPFA) is considered one of the most progressive ‘blueprints’ ‘for   for achieving equality for women identified violence against women. Gender based violence was set out as one of the twelve areas of concern and the platform also set out strategies to ensure implementation of the same. This was in a bid to assist governments in implementation. During the Beijing +5 conference held in New York in 2000 the BPFA set out to review the progress of member states and also set out to evaluate its objectives in order to gauge the progress. From this evaluation the BPFA came up with the outcomes document which also outlined more measures meant to address the issue of gender based violence against women. The recognition of gender based violence as gender discrimination therefore is a major milestone in dealing with the vice. The declaration on the elimination of violence against women and the BPFA   provides a point of reference from which strategies to achieve gender based violence free environment could be achieved.

In India domestic violence has taken a very ugly face. It is characterised by simplified  forms of restraining of women  going  to the this  go to the extremes of  abuse, aggression and even severe suppression .Female child survival is also at stake India where efforts are made to prevent the survival of the girl child. This ranges from infanticide  to neglect  to malnourishment rape ,denying girls education, marrying them at a very young age, wife beating to harassing females brides  W. This is usually with the aim t encouraging them commit suicide. These are some of the various ways in which women experience gender violence. In the Indian community men   enjoy absolute power  and privileges .In a family setting they make all decisions and  are also  elevated to a very high position of Annadata or ‘giver of grains’ or Grihakarta   ‘the household authority’. Men have absolute power and authority and are practically worshipped, Ranki (2004). It is therefore easy to understand why domestic violence in this case may not be seen as a problem. This is because men area allowed to control women at every stage of their existence be it as youngsters or adults. The social stigma faced by women in India especially if she goes public about her husband and in-laws also prevents them from reporting the violence to the police.

There is even a myth in India that women were fated to suffer. This therefore makes violence against women a normal occurrence. Women are also forced to maintain a strict dress code whereby they cover their entire body as a way of coercion.  There is also another myth that wife battery is a private matter and this way most Indian women  deny that it exist while they experience it. When they want a divorce there is a high resistance from their families.

Domestic violence against women is the most common in India. This is basically due to the mindset that women are weaker than their male counterparts. Functionalism is a theory that can easily relate to the domestic violence situation in India.  This theory utilises social and cultural traits in explaining how various systems operate. The theory stresses that cultural practices have a psychological and physiological function in any given society. This could be through reduction of fear and anxiety and also satisfying people’s desires. According to Radcliff Brown, all practices that are constituted in a society ultimately contributed   to the maintenance and survival of the whole system. In the India case, this theory will confirm that occurrences in society, domestic violence included, contributes in the survival of the society. As explained below its evident that domestic violence in India is highly influenced by the societal culture and beliefs.

The main reasons for battery of women India range from desire for male children .There are instances where women who do not bear male children are brutally tortured. There are even instances where women’s wombs are ripped open in order to kill the female child encase the woman disagrees to have an abortion voluntarily. This is practiced in rural India. Infertility and not looking after in-laws are also major cause of domestic violence towards women .There have been gruesome reports of young bride being burnt alive or subjected to continuous harassment for not bringing home the amount of demanded dowry. Women are also hit if they suspect their husbands are having extra marital; affairs. In urban setting the case is complicated by the fact that that the women are working as compares to the rural areas where the women are financially independent. Some of the causes of domestic violence include having a better income than the spouse and there is also assault and coercion by the employers through demands for sexual favours. Young widows in India are also subjected to violence where they are accused of their husband’s deaths; they are usually cursed and denied basic necessities like food and clothing. The widows are in some circumstances raped or even molested by the family members and in most cases they are not allowed to remarry.

            It is also important or also note that domestic violence is not only meted to women alone in India but also to men, the elderly and even children. Domestic violence against men has gradually increased in India; however this kind of violence is less frequent.  There was an instance recently when men gathered ain Chandigarh and shimla to voice their opinions on violence being meted on them by women and other family members. This just proves that domestic violence also affects men India albeit in a small scale.

          In terms of numbers, the number of reported cases on domestic violence against children and teens is the second form after violence against women. In rural areas a its usually associated with child labour or punishment for not following family traditions. Girls are the worst affected as they are not supposed to take the place of boys   when a couple  wants  to bear children. The girls are therefore cursed and assaulted for taking the position of the boys. A survey of teens and college students found that rape accounted for 67 percent of sexual assaults in girls. Disabled children are also cursed and mistreated ands there are even cases where poor families sell body organs of retarded children in exchange for money. Domestic violence against old is common when there is need for property. They are usually abused and neglected by the relatives who want to inherit their property and at times they are beaten to death. The scenario is even worse for the elderly women who are more vulnerable to gender violence than their male counterparts. The elderly women become victims of property grabbing, material exploitation and abandonment. This is especially due to the gender discrimination structures that exist. They are isolated, cursed and times even considered as bad omen. Other Forms of Domestic Violence in India include family wars. This is usually over property disputes, religious conflicts that arise during religious ceremonies and even inter caste marriages.   Violence over caste marriages are common in many states like Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh a mong others. There is also mistreatment of domestic servants through overwork, working without pay or even rest. There have also been serious cases which are related to dowry payment.  In dowry related violence there are instances where the brides and wives end up being burnt. This is one type of violence that is particularly common in India. According to a Television broadcast aired in 1993, around 6100 women were killed in one year just because of dowry. In the United Kingdom contracted killers also known as ‘bounty killers are paid large sums of money to track down Asian girls who flee from violent homes and try to take refuge in the women’s safe house (Ranki). The fact that the police force in India comes from the same society which has deep rooted prejudice against women makes it even complicated for the police to tackle domestic violence cases even when they are reported. Rinki notes that the police even have a undisguised contempt for women. The police officers especially from the lower ranks treat women as second class citizens.

The Indian feminist forums and other women movements in India  have also tried to tackle the issues of domestic violence. Since 1990s they were demanding for a civil law on domestic violence. However it was not until the year 2005 when protection of women from domestic violence was enacted. The Lawyers Collective Women’s  Rights Initiative(LCWRI )  sought to clarify what Domestic violence is  but has also taken the fore front  in challenging the  government’s bill on domestic violence  which was circulated on December 11, 2001. Circulation of this bill presented a milestone in the fight of gender based violence although it has been criticised as having dangerous implications to women The Vienna congress on human rights also critically analysed this area.

The Domestic Violence Act 2005 for women empowerment in India marked a very significant attempt in recognising domestic violence as an offence which should be punishable by law. The main beneficiaries are women and children according to section (2a) of the act. The act empowers women to sue a person they are having a domestic relationship with who subjects them to domestic violence. The act has a provision for protection, residence, custody and maintenance orders; in addition it has other relief in favour of domestic violence victims. Children too can sue their parents for any kind of torture.

        In a domestic violence survey conducted in India, whereby 10,000 women were interviewed. The result indicates that 26% of physical violence was experienced in urban areas and 20% rural areas. Psychological torture was at 45% and 51% respectively. (Rinki)  According to Rinki the authors reported that this was ‘just the tip of the iceberg. The Police records in India also indicated that a woman is raped every 34 minutes, molested every 26 minutes, kidnapped every 43 minutes and killed every 93 minutes.

It has been reported that between a quarter and a half of all women have at one point been abused by people they were so close to and between 40% to 70% of females who have been victims of murder have been victims of people they were in intimate with. According to United Nation Population Fund Report two-thirds of married Indian women have been victims of domestic violence. In addition as many as 70 per cent of  women who are already married  and  are between the ages of 15 and 49  have  suffered as a result of rape ,beating or forced sex .The study found that in India, more than 55 percent of the women suffer from domestic violence.

In a 10-country study on women’s health and domestic violence which was conducted by the world health organization WHO, the results indicated that between 15% and 71% of women had reported domestic violence by a partner.  It was also found that every year; about 5,000 women are murdered by family members through honour killings. Women and girls, yet they are widely practiced in many countries   such as India, the Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa.  Worldwide, the research indicated that one in five women had reported sexual abuse as children.

A Case study on domestic violence is the case of Naina Sahni who was killed then burnt by her husband in 1995 in a tandoor, in New Delhi. Naina was killed following a marital dispute and domestic violence meted to her by her husband for suspecting the he had a marital affair .On July 2, 1995,the  body  of Naina Sahni (29) was  discovered burning in a tandoor (a clay oven ) by  police  officers who got  suspicious, when they saw a huge smoke coming  from a hotel . It was alleged that Naina was killed by her  husband Sushil Sharma who was  the Delhi Youth Congress president.

According to the charges, Sharma suspected his wife of infidelity. He believed she had an affair with a fellow classmate and this led to domestic violence and marital discord. On the fateful day, he shot her twice before cutting her body into pieces and tried to burn it in a tandooor and that is when he was caught. Apparently, Naina’s elderly father felt that he was guilty for nor protecting his daughter. 0n 30^th march 2004 there was a story in the mid day, a local daily where a young girl was strangled to death by her father at Turbhe for refusing to fetch him water. (Rinki)

        Some of the possible ways of Prevention include; increasing education access and job and opportunities for women and girls .This could help enlighten women on the issue of domestic violence, hence help in preventing it. This is because it would improve their self esteem and also enlighten them on negotiation skills. Gender equity in communities should also be encouraged through community sensitization. Other possible methods would include; educating the various demographics on ways of detecting and handling early signs of domestic violence and also initiate programmes that counsel children who have experienced domestic violence in their families. Mass public education campaigns which would mostly target men and boys who are mostly the perpetrators would be beneficial. These campaigns would also aim at changing the men’s attitudes towards gender inequalities and general violence. Mobilising resources and setting up legal assistance for abused women and also creating awareness among the health workers can help in prevention of domestic violence.

In conclusion Issues of domestic violence continue to struggle when it comes to receiving recognition and even policies that have been formulated have not yet been implemented. There are various efforts that have been put in order to eradicate domestic violence. However this has been a very tough battle, in that domestic violence is still rampant everywhere in the world. There are cases of domestic violence reported on daily basis and this leaves one to wonder if there has been any progress made. This should however not dampen the spirit of the fighters of this evil, since silence would be worse than speaking against domestic violence. There is so much that remains to be done though if these efforts have to succeed. In order to end domestic violence there is need for a social, political, and economic environment that is going to ensure that there is enough support for domestic violence victims and other related activities. Governments also need to put the implementation of the outlined policies to the fore front instead of leaving such massive responsibilities to   women movements to tackle them single headedly. To succeed in eliminating domestic violence, every one must join hands and be part of the solution.

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Both non criminal and criminal elites cause great harm to people.  Elite deviance violates the ethical, moral as well as the legal standards for benefits of government and corporate entity. Sociologists argue that elite deviance is usually committed by high ranks of power and causes financial, physical and moral harm.

While we do hear people who are in power ripping off its public and even wiping them financially, elite deviance can tend to be extremely hazardous to the public. In the sociological imagination theory, Mills affirm that one ought to look deep inside oneself in order to help in crucial research problems and so that the social scientists can be able to translate some of the private problems into public issues. This translation hence means that we be in a position to connect the issues we face in our biography to the social institutions.

The sociological imagination theory clearly states that it is usually quite difficult for most of the people in the society to link some of their personal issues to the cultural institutions that they live in. Sociological imagination offers that one possesses the aptitude to look beyond personality and local environment to a wide social structures as well as a relationship between social structure, biography and history.  Sociological imagination does refer to some of the personal issues becoming social and public problems. This generally means that the problems of the people can never be accounted on just the personal level.  Without sociological imagination, people usually end up getting trapped in their familiar worlds and are usually incapable of comprehending the structural and social dimensions of their predicaments.

Social imagination can also be applied in incidents that have reported high rate of crime for example in the scandal of VECO Corporation. Sociological imagination theory in relation to elite crime broadens our understanding on the growing decline of morals and ethics in the leading companies, government agencies as well as the justice system. Social imagination theory does not just focus on the dysfunctional individuals or families but rather the society at large including the elite people.

VECO Corporation in relation to social imagination theory is rational and quite practical on the grounds that the top officials of the company ended up committing elite crimes. The corporation got involved in various elite crimes that comprised of offering bribes to the wall street journal as well as unlawful allocation of money and violation of legal and ethical norms. In discussing the reasons that might have led to these top officials committing crimes, we can use the theory of sociological imagination by Mills. Elite crime is quite serious, costly and lightly punished in the American society (David. 2006). Deviance by the elites does create measurable distrust in the political and economic system which does manifest itself in divergent ways.

Sociology does offer a unique and a peculiar way in explaining what usually happens in the human life and a major distinctive approach into solving some of the human dilemmas. According to Mills, each individual can clearly comprehend their experience as well as gauge their fate by locating themselves within their period. They only become totally aware of life through being aware of circumstances around them. Using the sociological imagination hence means making of rational comparisons of all human experience across time and societies. In discussing the crime that occurred at VECO it is therefore imperative to consider the institution at large, its norms, interactions as well as the policies of the Corporation. The sociological imagination theory as well as the theory of elite deviance relates well with the case study as VECO Corporation was involved in several elite crimes. Sarah Palin was alleged to have been receiving contributions for her major campaigns from the corporation.

She received funds from the senior personnel of VECO Corporation to which the chief executive officer at VECO Corporation agreed to (Benet, 2009). Another crime that the corporation committed was giving of bribes to the Wall Street journal where its representative Don Young was under investigations for having accepted unlawful presents and gratuities. Ted who was also an official in the corporation was also involved in unlawful allocation of funds and accepted all the offenses. The top officials of the company were accused of bribing as well as extortion and hence sentenced to fifteen years in jail.

Sociological imagination in this scenario helps us to see beyond the main qualities which we attribute to the individuals when the society provides just little respite. We need to look beyond these individuals as the main cause and examine their social context which could have led to the crimes that they did. The social issues around the corporation and the trust entrusted to them by the public can be the main cause that led to the crimes they committed. According to the theory, the officials sentenced ought not to be seen generally as criminals but as people who were influenced by their environs. There are various reasons that could have triggered them to commit the crime for example hunger for power, seeking of recognition, greed,  opportunity, lack of moral character and judgment, ignorance and others as they sought to please the public and also because they did not see the main benefits of just adhering to some of the conventional social issues and values. This is a corporation that had a good history which used to deal with oil pipelines and supported the oil industry as well as performing tremendously in the global oil market.

They conserved the environment to show their social responsibility and it is only logical that with such responsibilities there would be misappropriation of funds by the seniors. It is also logical that in trying to create more attention it decided to offer funds to Sarah Palin to run her campaigns and eventually made huge mistakes which it did not target for. Their acts can also be as a result of feelings of powerlessness as they already knew that they occupied positions in which they have been trained in and hence they are interchangeable and replaceable.

This always makes people feel dehumanized since they have no much authority and freedom. Generally this hence could have been as a result of denial of responsibility and victimization as well as greed of higher loyalties. In most instances the organization does influence the workers to commit the deviant acts (David. 2006, pp. 289). Such motivations are usually as a result of alienation which hence makes them to take a cynical approach towards their work.

Conservative measures of crime control for example capital punishment, incarcerations as well as boot camps have done little to eradicate elite crimes. There is therefore a need to radically rethink on the justice system . Social control initiatives and strategies are crucial and quite effective in achieving social justice as well as curbing crime. Braithwaite’s theory (David. 2006, pp. 281) of reintegrative shaming is one of the progressive initiatives that are proposed in order to deal with such elite crimes like the one that happened at VECO.

Such initiatives have the potential of alleviating suffering and pain that is caused by crime. Braithwaite’s treatment of justice, law and crime has a bracing freshness. Braithwaite affirms that elite deviance is usually explained through examining on the role of the actors in an organization which hence shapes their acts (David. 2006).

One of the strategies that could have been used on the officials is shaming them in order to eradicate future occurrences. Reintegrative shaming strengthens the moral bond between offenders and the community in which they come from. Braithwaite suggested two reintegrative processes namely reintegrative shaming and stigmatic shaming. The stigmatic tie would have ruined the ties between the society and the offenders and reintegrative shaming would have brought the offenders back to the society as one of the law abiding citizens. This is a theory that is relevant in this case study as it works as a remedy to curbing cases of crime.

There are various elements that have not been discussed in relation to these theories. The theories have not recommended what should be done in order to prevent or curb the onset of these crimes. They have mostly focused on the definition. The sociological imagination theory for example has focused on definitions and how underprivileged people commit crimes but fails to tell us at length on why elite people might also decide to commit the crimes.

Conclusion

Elite crimes consist of acts that are committed by people and members of the upper classes who do include governmental organizations as well as those who do head the corporate world. Elite crimes are usually committed for a number of reasons. They are usually done for fostering of power, personal gain, profitability or even influence from the organization. They are massively financially harmful to organization as well as individuals. Elite crime is not just prevalent in the corporate world but also civil liberties, Central Intelligence Agency and even the FBI’s. At the center stage was VECO Corporation, a corporation that dealt with oil pipelines, which portrayed the highest level of political corruption. Its leaders were accused of having had perpetrated massive corruption. The leaders pleaded guilty and were sentenced for 15 years in prison.

It is evident that VECO Corporation has been involved in various perceptible elite crimes. The top leaders faced serious corruption allegations.  In order to carry out the entire research, books, videos as well as the internet sources have been used. It is patent from the case study what exactly elite crimes are all about and their effects on individuals as well as companies. Elite crimes have a great adverse effect on businesses and the economy at large. They consist of political corruption just like the one that happened at VECO Corporation. The leaders in the company lacked business ethics and did not use their powers as required and ended up being sentenced for fifteen years.

Leaders need to use the powers and positions entrusted to them in an effective and apparent way to avoid getting themselves as well as their companies in scandals. Effectual leaders ought to be responsible, open minded, involved with the entire community, be in control with finances and be respectful to the rules employed by the company as well as  work on the trust that is entrusted to them in order to avoid disappointing the public.

There is a vast body of evidence on some of the factors that do place people at the risk of committing crimes. Most of the crime theories try to explain the main relationship between criminal behavior and the risk factors. Even in comprehending the extent and range of theoretical understandings as well as explanations of crime. Sociological imagination theory by Mills has discussed extensively on some of the areas that people need to focus on in analyzing crimes. Mills has extensively discussed some of the reasons that people engage in crimes and has made it clear that people ought to look beyond what they can see and focus on in depth information on why scandals do happen. Braithwaite’s theory has offered a remedy in dealing with criminals in order to reform them.

Both sociological imagination theory and Braithwaite’s theory are important in dealing with crime and criminals as they help us to have a deeper analysis of what crime are all about and some of the things that ought to be taken into consideration in evaluation of crimes and criminals. The theories also help us to come up with remedies that are crucial in dealing with future scandals like the one that happened in VECO. In order to prevent as well as curb elite crimes, there is a need to implement strong laws that will act as a lesson to the rest. There is also a need to put in immense policies that every employee will adhere to in order to avoid elite crimes. Finally there is a need to improve communication between the employers and employees in order to ascertain that the employees are motivated and there are no any loopholes to crime.